Shaivism in Kashmir

Kashmir Shaivism

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piritual bliss is not like the intoxication of wine or that of riches, nor similar to union with the beloved. The manifestation of the light of consciousness is not like the ray of light from a lamp, sun or moon. When one frees oneself from accumulated multiplicity, the state of bliss is like that of putting down a burden; the manifestation of the Light is like the acquiring of a lost treasure, the domain of universal non-duality. -Abhinavgupta “Kashmir Shaivism has penetrated into that living depth of thought where diverse currents of human wisdom united in a luminous synthesis." -Tagore India has been the land of seers, saints, sages, savants and spiritual masters who delved deep into the mysteries of existence and enriched humanity with the fruit of their investigations. The Vedas, the Upanishads, the six systems of philosophy, the two great epics and the Puranas have molded the lives of millions down the ages. In the northern Indian State of Jammu & Kashmir, the people in ancient times, like those in the rest of India, followed the religion of the Vedas to a large extent. However, during the reign of Ashoka the Great (304-232 B.C.E), Buddhism came to Kashmir and exerted its influence till the 8th century. The Beginning Soon after the death of the great Buddhist saint-scholar, Nagarjuna, a new religious philosophy, probably a fusion of ancient Vedic and Buddhist cultures, was evolved in Kashmir. The fundamentals of this indigenous system of philosophy are said to have been laid down by no less a person than Durvasa rishi himself during the Mahabharat times. Mount Kailasa Some scholars believe that Kashmir Shaivism originated near Kailasa in the Himalayas around 400 AD and its first teacher was none other than a disciple of sage Durvasa, Tryambakaditya. And it was the sixteenth descendant in the line of Tryambakaditya who settled in Kashmir Valley around 800 AD. His name was Sangmaditya whose fourth descendant, Somananda, finally extracted the principles of monistic Saiva philosophy from the scriptures and incorporated them in his famous work, Sivadrishti, regarded as the first philosophical treatise on Kashmir Shaivism. This thought reached perfection much later when it was refined by a galaxy of illumined sages like Vasugupta, Kallata, Utpaldeva and Abhinavgupta. Siva Sutras Obviously not content with the prevailing creed which did not recognize either any outside scriptural authority like the Vedas, or any Supreme Being called God, Vasugupta (850-900 A.D.), sought to perfect the new system of thought that changed the existing religious current and completely countered the nihilistic teachings of Buddhism. It almost happened about the same time when Sankaracharya had launched his vigorous campaign against Buddhism in the rest of India. Legend has it that Vasugupta based his philosophy on the Siva Sutras which he found engraved on a big stone still identified as Shankar Pal at the eastern foot of the Mahadeva mountain, a few miles away from Harwan reservoir in Srinagar. These sutras contain the essence of Saivagamas, the authoritative scriptures of non-dual (advaita) Saivism, developed first by Vasugupta himself in his famous work ‘Spandakarika’. Final Seal Abhinavgupta The final seal, as it were, was put on the efforts of his predecessors by an outstanding philosopher, mystic and scholar, Abhinavgupta (950-1020 AD) not only through his power of reasoning but also by his personal spiritual attainments, He classified Trika system into four broad groups-Pratyabhijna, Kula, Krama and Spanda. His most voluminous work in verse, Tantraloka (The light of Tantra), enumerates the Tantric Agamas and deals mainly with the three methods (upayas) of realizing the ultimate truth. The earliest ancestor of Abhinavgupta was a famous Brahmin Saiva teacher, Attrigupta who lived outside Kashmir in Autarvedi, somewhere between the Ganga and the Yamuna. It was King Lalitaditya, the ruler of Kashmir (700-736 AD), who invited Attrigupta to Kashmir for good. Several generations after him, one of his descendants, Abhinavgupta, furthered the cause of Kashmir Saivism and wrote extensively on the basics of this philosophy. A legend prevalent among Saivists in Kashmir, as narrated to me by my revered father, is that Abhinavgupta literally walked out of this mundane world alive with his 1200 disciples and entered the Bhairav cave in village Bhiruwa, all the while reciting the famous Siva hymn composed by himself--(Vyaaphta Charaachar Bhaava Vishesham Chinmayam Ekam Anantam Anaadim...) During the middle ages, we had the great Shaivist, Rajanaka Shitkanth, also known as “Sidha Mol” who initiated the famed saint-poetess of Kashmir, Lalleshwari (1320-1392 AD), in spirituality and mysticism. Both Shitikanth and Lalla hailed from Pampore village in Kashmir Valley. In recent times, however, it was Saivacharya Swami Ram (1854-1915 AD) and his grand disciple, Swami Lakshman Joo (1907-1991) who popularized this philosophy throughout the world. __ __ Lalleshwari _____________--_________Swami Ram __________________ Swami Lakshman Joo Trika Shastra Kashmir Shaivism is a religio-philosophical system which lays primary focus on the Ultimate Reality, absolute and pure, Paramashiva, and takes into account both His transcendental and immanent aspects. It describes consciousness of man as the Atman, the core eternal witness of all that undergoes ceaseless change in body and mind. It is a universal spiritual philosophy in which all aspects of life are integrated and taken in totality. Since Shaivism treats the Absolute Truth under the three principles of God, Soul and Matter, the system is known as Trikashastra or simply Trika. This system, one can say, is based on the three energies of Lord Siva-Para, Parapara and Apara. While para is subjective energy of Lord Siva, Parapara, called as intermediate, is Siva's cognitive energy and Apara energy, known as inferior, is the objective energy of the Lord. Philosophically, Trika Shastra represents a a positive and a theistic outlook in contrast to the absolute monism of Vedanta. Siva, according to this school, is the Ultimate Reality, abounds in bliss and consciousness and is endowed with sovereignty of will, omniscience and omnipotence. He is everything and yet beyond everything. He is both immanent and transcendent. Time, form and space do not limit him, for He is above all mutation and change. Trika does not recognize any essential difference between the individual self, technically called the Pasu and the Universal self, the Pati. The 'Pasu' is no other than Siva Himself, but is in a state of limitation and self-forgetfulness. It has taken on three impurities (malas) which are responsible for obscuring his true nature, but when these get dissolved, he realizes the divine within him in its crystalline purity. In fact, while not advocating either escapism or the other worldliness, Saivism lays emphasis on the spiritual effort on the part of the Pasu to break the shackles of Maya and rise into the free and unfettered state of Pati or to use Utpaladeva’s own words “to break through the eggshell of the world formed of attachment and aversion and to grow wings so as to be able to become a denizen of the limitless space of consciousness.” A mediating and a harmonizing sadhana, Trika sought to synthesize various aspects of the then prevalent philosophies like Advaita Vedanta, Vaishnavism, Sankhya, Nyaya, Yoga and even the Buddhist thought. It adopted monism from the non-dual philosophy of Sankara; theism from Vaishnavas; logic from Nyayists, discipline from Yoga aphorisms and popular appeal from the Buddhists. Tattvas While the two systems of Indian philosophy, Sankhya and Vedanta, regarded the universe as comprising of twenty-five tattvas (principles or categories), Saivism added eleven more, making the total of thirty-six tattvas The additional eleven categories provide a fuller vision of the Absolute, both in the descending and the ascending order. Going from Siva tattva down to prithvi tattva, we find the process of manifestation and the creation of the universe and in going the opposite way, we find the process of spiritual evolution culminating in Godhood. Whereas many a thinker like Prof. T.M.P. Mahadevan talk about the process of evolution from the subtle to the gross, Swami Lakshman Joo, like Sri Aurobindo, believes in the theory of Ascent from gross to the subtle, from man to Superman. The sage of Ishaber explained the tattvas only in the rising way, saying "we must rise". So, he starts the list of categories with pancha mahabhootas. I have followed the same order. in this write-up Tattvas are divided into three groups: Ashuddha, or impure, Shuddhashuddha, or pure-impure and Shudda, or pure. The impure tattvas are said to be the domain of objectivity and duality, the pure-impure tattvas the domain of knowledge and the pure tattvas the domain of transcendental unity. Ashudha tattvas are: Five gross elements-Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Ether; Five subtle elements-Smell, Taste, Form, Touch and Sound; Five organs of cognition-Nose, Tongue, Eye, Skin and Ear; Five organs of action-Excretion organ, Sexual organ, Hand, Feet and Speech; Three internal organs-Mind, Intellect and Ego; and Prakriti (Matter). Shudha-ashudha tattvas are: Purusha and the six kanchukas (Coverings)-Niyati (limitation of space); Kaala (limitation of time); Raaga (limitation of attachment); Vidya (limitation of knowledge); Kalaa (creativity) and Maya (illusion of individuality). Shuddha tattvas are: Shuddha Vidya, Iswara, Sadasiva, Sakti and Siva. Philosophical Nucleus Lord S'iva Siva, represented as the symbol of the eternal process of creation and destruction, is absolutely independent and creates all that exists under the influence of desire by the mere force of His Will (Iccha Sakti). He makes the world appear in Himself as if it were distinct from Himself, though it is not so in reality. Even as objects appear in a mirror, God is as unaffected by the objects of His creation as the mirror is by the images reflected in it. Shaivism takes into account both the transcendental and the immanent aspects of Reality and does not find any sharp difference between the two ends of existence. The world of consciousness and that of senses are inseparably connected and to make lives free and unfettered, it is essential to master both. Spirituality is not something far removed from the demands of daily life and does not mean escapism or other-worldliness. The life of utter renunciation is not incompatible with worldly life that has its own place in the scheme of things. The universe with its smooth and orderly working points unerringly to a skilled hand to be behind it. The whole order of creation follows a meticulous plan and is too meaningful to be dismissed as an error. Everything has a divine purpose and every individual has a part to play. In this colossal organism each part moves according to a set plan, harmoniously playing the role assigned to it by the master designer. Non-dualistic Doctrine The doctrine of non-dualism propounded by Abhinavgupta synthesizes all that is abiding, universal and enduring in Vedanta and other systems of Indian thought. In fact, it seeks to integrate dualism, pluralism and even the Buddhist doctrine of Void (sunya). The Soul, according to this doctrine, is of the same nature as Consciousness and there is no difference between the individual soul and the universal self. Unlike Vedanta, Saivism points out that the world is absolutely real and is the manifestation of God Himself brought about by His Free Will (Swatantrya Sakti). There is no place even for Maya in this system. The empirical world is not an illusion and on attainment of self-realization, it does not disappear as the illusory serpent does when the rope is recognized as a fact. Maya Shakti is the power of delusion that makes subjects identify themselves with Sunya, Buddhi, Prana and the physical body, forgetting the real self. Since Maya is the principle of ignorance and darkness, it cannot directly lead one to enlightenment Shaivism asserts that the world was created by the Lord as a sport (Leela). Siva, who represents the eternal process of creation and destruction, makes the world appear in Himself as if it were distinct from Himself, though it is not so in reality. God remains as unaffected by the objects of His creation as the mirror is by the images reflected in it. All the three paths of Jnana, Karma and Bakhti, according to Abhinavgupta, are not independent means to realize the goal of life. Rather, they are complementary to each other. Human nature has three inherent aspects-intellectual, emotional and spiritual which need to be harnessed in order to attain full-blooded realization of the Divine. It, however, disagrees with the Yogic view that one can attain liberation merely by one’s effort without the grace of Siva. Both Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Saivism advocate monism though they have developed it differently to suit particular minds. While Badrayana founded Vedanta in the plains of India, Durvasa expounded Trika Saiva in the Himalayan ranges. The sources of Vedanta are the Vedas and Upanishads and those of Saivism are the Tantras. The two philosophies have prevailed in Kashmir since ancient times, as is evident from the fact that Kashmiri Pandits recite hymns from the Vedas and the Tantras in their daily rites and rituals. They also recite hymns like Mukundamala dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Sivamahimnastotram in praise of Lord Siva. Upayas To undertake the journey from the lower to the highest transcendental state, Kashmir Saivism lays down three means (Upayas). They are: Anuvopava, Saktopaya and Sambhavopaya. The first one, Anuvopaya, concerns anu, meaning the individual soul and his mind-body complex. This is the lower form of sadhana which suits those whose minds and intellects are not sufficiently evolved to apprehend the Supreme Reality. Also called Kriyopaya, it is experienced by such methods as recitation of mantras, control of breath, fixation of postures and meditation on various centers of body including the life force (prana). Utpaladeva calls it mayayopaya, which obviously cannot directly lead one to enlightenment for the simple reason that maya is the principle of ignorance. Saktopaya is a yogic practice which does not involve recitation of mantras or breathing exercises or any objective dhyana. At the same time, it does not suit those who are not capable of reaching a thoughtless state. An expedient of a high order, it is usually meant for those who possess unflinching devotion, sharp intellect and are endowed with inquisitive and highly sensitive minds. In this form of sadhana, the aspirant has to fix his mind on any one point between two objects. Thus the one who establishes oneself in one-pointed awareness enters the state of transcendental consciousness. It is also known as Jnanopaya, as it originates from jnana sakti, the energy of knowledge. The third expedient, Sambhavopaya, is meant only for those privileged souls who have developed chitta consciousness through the grace of the master. It is a unique way of yoga discipline that leads one to supreme realization by emptying one’s mind completely of all thoughts. Also known as nirvikalpayoga, it makes oneself drowned into an ocean of bliss. Since a strong will is required to achieve this, Abhinavgupta describes it as Ichhopaya or Ichha yoga in his 'Tantraloka', wherein he also points out that "the one established in Sambhavopaya shines like midday sun for the whole universe". Spiritual lore has examples galore of this state of being. Take the case of Chaitanya. Any words spoken about Lord Krishna brought tears into his eyes. Sri Ramarkrishna, while still a boy, fell unconscious in a paddy field after going into trance at the mere sight of a line of cranes flying in the sky. Similarly, Maulana Rumi once went into ecstasy for nearly six hours while passing by a goldsmith's shop as a result of the musical sound produced by beating the sheets of gold. In that divine mood, he is believed to have envisioned the Supreme in all His glory. Anupaya: Over and above these three Upayas, there is the highest and perhaps the final and the direct means to liberation. It is called Anupaya, which literally means no Upaya. It is an effortless effort, one may say. Also called Anandopaya, it is a state in which an aspirant has to do nothing but to only observe silence. One has to be as one is. According to "Tantraloka", a mere touch or a glance of an evolved soul can bring about transcendental bliss. Swami Lakshman Joo told me in an interview in the seventies that he had had the privilege of having darshan of one such person in Shri Ramana Maharshi, the sage of Tiruvannamalai during his visit to South India, including Pondichery. Four Systems of Thought The first system of thought evolved by the Saiva philosophers is Pratyabhijna which literally means to recognize one's own self once again. It represents a mental act by which one realizes and re-unites with the original state i.e. universal consciousness. As an active principle, the individual self (atman) is identical with the Supreme Lord but due to the influence of maya (ignorance), it forgets its divine nature, becomes liable to limitation and bondage, and thinks itself to be different from the Supreme Lord. In this system, the Ultimate Reality voluntarily descends to the level of the Jiva or empirical individual who, in turn, becomes duty bound to ascend and recognize himself as Siva. Thus one's mukti (spiritual freedom) lies in one's clear recognition (Pratyabhijna) of one's identity with the Supreme Lord. Regarded as one of the greatest humanistic movements of Kashmir, Pratyabhijna is completely free from 'negativism' and escapism' of certain schools of Vedanta as also from the 'nihilism' of some Buddhist schools. Realistic in its attitude to life, it lays stress on swatantrya, the complete autonomy of thought and action as the goal of life. Pratyabhijna emphasizes the fact that humans are the sparks of the divine and it echoes the Vedic injunction (vasudhaiva kutumbakam) when it says that the whole of mankind forms one family (manavah bandhavah sarve). Needless to say, Pratyabhijna promotes eternal values of peace, freedom and human dignity. The second system of thought is known as Kula, the science of totality that shines in each and every part of the universe. It teaches how one can live in universal consciousness (chaitanya), the real nature of oneself in both the ascending and descending acts. The purpose of this doctrine is to rise above individual energy and assimilate the blissful energy of totality. Kula ritual, described by Abhinavagupta along with the various tantras of his day in his encyclopedic work, the Tantraloka, (Light of the Tantras), may perhaps lead the practitioner to the highest level of consciousness. But, on the face of it, the Kula ritual appears to be an aberration best forgotten. By upholding this tantrik tradition, Abhinavgupta perhaps sought to break down dualism between the profane and the sacred. The third thought system is that of Krama which stipulates that one has to rise step by step in one's sadhana aimed at self-realization. Its main purpose is to develop such awareness that one transcends space, time and form. There is no space, nor any sense of time for one established in the formless state of Being (nirakar). In this system, the aspirant practices Kundalin Yoga to attain the blissful state of Universal Consciousness. And the fourth is the philosophical school of Spanda, literally meaning ‘Pulsation’. Developed as early as the ninth century in two of its basic texts Siva–sutra and Spanda-Karika, it projects Siva as “all-inclusive reality, a single, unified consciousness, which manifests itself in all subjects, acts and objects of experience by virtue of an inherent and infinite dynamism." It recognizes that nothing can exist without movement. Abhinavgupta says that it is that movement which in fact is no movement at all. Spanda directs the seeker to concentrate on each and every moment in this world. Even the vibration of a blade of grass has the potential to carry one to God consciousness. According to this doctrine, the world is a play of energy force or vibration, which appears to be in conformity with the modern science. It is not an illusion nor the result of an error in perception (avidya) as Vedantins believe. Spanda rejects outright the Vedantic concept that 'vishva yan-na tad eva brahma' (what is not the world, that is Brahman). Saktipat All through the course of Sadhana, one feels the presence of an invisible hand that inspires the aspirant progressively on to the goal of self-realization. The ultimate reality is self-luminous and does not need any external light to illumine it. Self realization as such is not a case of man realizing God but one of God revealing Himself through the instrumentality of His divine power or Sakti. This is known as the doctrine of Saktipat or the descent of Sakti. Sankaracharya fully endorses this view in his famous work, Viveka Chudamani wherein he says: ”Human birth, desire for liberation and contact with great souls are acquired by the grace of Lord.” Baba Farid said ”God's grace may fall on us at any time. There are no definite rules regulating it. Some do not get it even after performing great austerities and night-long vigils while those who lie asleep may get it just like that.” The saint-poetess of Kashmir, Lalleshwari also talks of grace when she says: “Kenchan dyut-tham oray aalav, kenchav racheyi naalay vyeth, kenchan achi laji maschyeth taalav, kenchan papith gay haalav khyeth”. “Some you (meaning God) called out of your own (showered grace on them); some quaffed at the Vitasta (practiced hard penances); some got intoxicated with liquor (were lost in love for you) while there are some whose ripe crops were eaten away by the locust swarms (labors for attainment were lost). Shiva & Shakti Shiva is the highest metaphysical principle and the Universe is His Shakti. They are the two aspects of the same Reality. Sakti is related to Shiva as light is to sun. It is through Her that the Lord performs the five acts of manifestation, maintenance, withdrawal, dissolution and grace. Sakti assumes innumerable forms, the chief among them being “Chit, Ananda, Iccha, Jnana and Kriya corresponding to the five states of Shiva, Sakti, Sadasiva, Isvara and Sudha Vidya.. She is responsible both for liberation and bondage, the order of descent and the order of ascent. While Shiva or Paramsiva is the Ultimate Reality, Shahti is its power of manifestation. The universe is real (not an illusion) and a projection of the Shakti aspect of Shiva. Here, Maya is the creative force as also a veiling element. Kashmir Shaivism does not concern itself only in finding the nature of Siva, Shakti and the Nara but devotes itself extensively on the means to be employed by the man to realize its real self and thus merge with Siva. Saivism does not preclude worship of individual Gods or any way reduce the importance of Bhakti (devotion) as long as they lead one to the realization of the Self. Worshipping Shakti in various forms is quite common. Maya Shakti is that power of the Lord which is responsible for misapprehension in regard to the subject and the object. It is the power of delusion that makes subjects forget their real selves and identify themselves with Sunya, Buddhi, Prana and the physical body. Shakti forms the very nature of Siva and functions in five different expressions: Chit-shakti, Ananda-shakti, Iccha Shakti, Gnana Shakti, Kriya Shakti-conciousness, bliss, will, knowledge and action respectively. Siva, the supreme Lord, through ;his divine Shakti performs five functions: Self limitation (nigraha), creation (srishti), sustenance (sthiti) and absorption (samhara) and bestowal of grace (anugraha). Paramarthasara elucidates in detail various aspect of all these. Aesthetics & Kashmir Shaivism Aesthetics has always played an important role in the development of various schools of Indian philosophy. We do not see God as some distant disciplinarian ruler of the universe but is thought of as an intimate and loving master. Even in ancient times Indus Valley people worshiped their deities through the medium of dance. Vedic fire altars were constructed according to aesthetic norms. Rigvedic hymns in praise of various forces of nature are aesthetically very rich. Cave paintings at Elora and Ajanta testify to the importance attached to beautiful religious images in India during the Buddhist age. Ancient temples and images at places like Khajuraho display a highly developed aesthetic sense. Music is still a central part of the spiritual practice among both the Sakta, Saiva and Vaisnava devotees. According to Vijnanabhairava, music serves as an important aid to get absorbed in pure and blissful consciousness. Kashmir Shaivism is a philosophy that embraces life in its totality. Unlike puritanical systems, it does not shy away from the pleasant and the aesthetically pleasing aspects of life. In fact, it recognizes and celebrates the aesthetic aspect of the Absolute. It endorses a spiritual path that accepts both enjoyment (bhukti), and liberation (mukti) as the goal of human life. Not approving any form of forcible repression of the senses and the mind, it has developed methods that could be followed equally by both the monks and the householders. One of the leading scholars of Kashmir Shaivism and a former Director, Abhinagupta Institute of Aesthetics, Dr. Navjeevn Rastogi says that Kashmir Saivism is not rooted in sorrow, nor does it look to liberation (moksha) as a way out. Integral in its approach, it embraces life in its totality and does not, unlike other systems, separate the four goals of life, namely dharma, artha, kama, and moksha. Yet another Shaiva scholar, Dr. Ashutosh Angiras avers that Shaiva philosophers regarded beauty as a kind of self-expression and with the aid of their aesthetic sensibility found the transcendental reality manifest in every sphere of the mundane world. They even associated Siva not only with poetry, drama, dance or music but also with painting and the world could be seen as a painting painted by Him. Agamas The Agamas are deemed to have scriptural authority and are often called the fifth Veda. Scholars believe that the Upanisads and the Agamas branched off from the same stem, namely the Vedas. In fact, till the 11 century AD, both the Veda and the Agama were denoted by the common term sruti (revealed). It was only after that the Vedas were known as nigamas and the Tantras as the agamas. The Agamas are as much philosophic treatises as any other. According to Sir John Wooddroffe, scholars of Agamic literature believe that the Agamic tantric cult had been mainly responsible to swallow up Buddhism on the Indian soil. Generally speaking, Agama-Shastras of Kashmir deal mainly with ritualistic and mystic practices. Every agama usually consists of four sections or Kandas (1) Vidya or Jnana Kanda dealing with secret knowledge; (2) Yoga Kanda dealing with processes of concentration and breathing; (3) Kriya Kanda dealing with ritualistic performance of rituals and the fourth Kanda pertains to forms of worship. Agama texts also include certain philosophical speculations and teach certain methods, mystical practices (upayas) for achieving lower and higher Siddhis (occult powers). The Siva-sutras are believed to be a Rahasyagama-shastra-samgraha (a compilation of secret Agama Shastra) being the work of Siva Himself. Misconception about Tantra Referring to a common misconception that those performing Tantric practices use mystic formulae, invoke spirits and acquire weird powers, a great scholar of Kashmir Saivism, Kamlakar Mishra, says that "such an understanding of Tantra is obviously naive, for Tantra has a much wider connotation and stands for a particular conception of Reality and a particular way of life." Tantra, he pointed out, "presents a set of values that are on the one hand ethically good, and on the other hand, pleasant and satisfying to the individual." There is no doubt that in several Tantric works, human body is looked upon as Shri Chakra (disc of bountiful Superhuman power) in which the microcosmic angles of Shakti (energy) have been detailed as tvak (Skin), asrah (blood), mamsam (flesh), Meda (lymph) and asthi (bones). The macrocosmic angles have also been defined as the five elements, five tanmatras (subtle elements ), five senses of perception, five senses of action and five Pranas. These aspects of Mother Shakti have been brought out beautifully in the two lofty compilations of panegyrics, Panchastavi and Saundarya Lahiri. Popularity Kashmir Shaivism does not advocate a life of renunciation or profession of monks, but recommends an active householder's life with daily practice of worship, yoga and meditation. The use of outward symbols, such as yellow and orange robes, matted hair, and ashes are not recommended, if not prohibited. While recognizing worldly enjoyment as a goal of life, it does plead for a spiritual path aimed at harmonizing worldly enjoyment (bhukti0 and the desire for liberation (mukti). In no case does it advocate suppression of one's emotions. Rather, it provides for a spiritual path leading to the sublimation of the baser instincts and the cultivation of lofty ethical values and the higher goal of spiritual freedom. Shaivism holds the view that the world of consciousness and that of the senses are inseparably connected and it is essential to master both to make lives free and unfettered. Spirituality does not mean escapism nor the other-worldliness. Rather, it is something not far removed from the demands of daily life. Relevance to Present Times Since Kashmir Shaivism adopts a realistic and humanistic approach to life, its relevance to the present times may not be over-emphasized. Trika philosophy undoubtedly inspires one for both material and spiritual growth and what is more there is absolutely no restriction based on color, creed, caste or gender for eligibility in this system. Moving away from the obviously erroneous maya concept of Advaita Vedanta and Buddhist nihilism, it stresses positive acceptance of material world while pursuing the ultimate goal of ascending to Siva-hood. It abhors the torture of the body or mind, does not plead for suppression or forced control but lays stress on sublimation and gradual turning away from the lure of wealth, power and sense pleasures. Real joy can be gained as we live in this world by adopting spiritual approach and go about our work by exercising moderation in living. Be as you are, for when one discovers inner bliss, one will give up fascination for outer worldly enjoyments. Shaivism-Its Abiding Influence Shaivism has attracted the attention of many eminent thinkers, yogis and philosophers throughout India. Inscriptions testify to the fact that the teachers of Pratyabhijna school of Kashmir Shaivism were held in great honor in the court of the Chola emperors, from where they diffused out all over India during the medieval period. The earliest influence of Pratyabhijna system can be seen on the post-Sankara philosophical developments in India, particularly on Ramanuja (1017-1137 AD) who propounded his philosophy of qualified monism, accepting a personal God as the Absolute. However, it was Dr. Buhler's report on the discovery of manuscripts of Shaiva Shastras of Kashmiir in 1877 that generated widespread interest in the subject, particularly after the Kashmir Research Department started intensive study of Shaiva philosophy in 1902. In recent times, Kashmir Shaivism had its votaries in the great saint-philosopher of Kerala, Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928), the great poet-thinker, Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), the great mystic-Yogi, Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950), and Swami Muktananda (1908-1982). In his book entitled "The Philosophies of Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana" published in 1988, a distinguished research scholar from Kerala, Dr. B. Karunakaran, traces Narayana Guru's philosophy to the basic concepts of Pratyabhijna and says that a 'harmonious blending of Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta can be met with in Narayana Guru's system.' He points out that the influence of Abhinavgupta on Narayana Guru's perspectives is more pronounced than that of Sankara. Sri Aurobindo, who gave to the world the concept of Superman, had a clear influence of Shaivism on his thought process. Like the Shaivist thinkers of yore, he treats the world as God’s sport. He so beautifully echoes the Shaivist concept when he says: “This world was not built with the bricks of chance; a conscious power has drawn the plan of life and there is meaning in every curve and line. Individual life is not cut out of the whole and must not be viewed in isolation. The whole creation is Lord’s play (leela)”. The great poet-philosopher, Rabindranath Tagore, avers that “Kashmir Shaivism has penetrated into that living depth of thought where diverse currents of human wisdom united in a luminous synthesis.”

*A journalist by profession, a scholar by temperament and a writer by choice, Gopinath Raina was inclined to the study of religion from his very young age. It was Swami Vivekananda’s dynamic exposition of Hindu thought that fired his imagination while he was still at school, and by the time he entered college, he had been drawn to the writings of Gandhi, Aurobindo, Narayana Guru, Radhakrishnan and Bertrand Russel. After retiring from Indian Information Service (I.I.S.) in 1983 where he distinguished himself as an editor, correspondent, commentator and administrator in All India Radio, he edited, AICC Journal, Varnika, (Jan.'84-Dec.'90), Koshur Samachar (March'91-Oct'95, Sanatana Sandesh,(1997-2005) and KASHEER (2003-2004), He has been writing profusely on various aspects of Hindu thought. He enjoys writing, particularly on saints and sages, not only of Kashmir, but of the other parts of India as well. Presently he lives in Miami, and spends his time writing personal memoirs.

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An Outline of the History of Kashmir

Prof. L. N. Dhar

Kashmir is perhaps, to possess an authentic account of its history from the very earliest period. This past account of the valley, its culture and traditions, rise and fall of various Kingdoms, victory and defeats of the people have been noted carefully, yet critically by the sons of its soil. True it is, that the Kashmiriat literature is very rich in information about Kashmir. The modern state of Jammu and Kashmir covered an area of 86024 square miles (prior to 1947) extending from 32deg 78' to 36deg 58' N and from 73deg 27' to 80deg 72' E. The entire state included, beside the Jammu region, Ladakh, Gilgit, Hunza, Nagar, Punial, and Yasin. The tiny state of Chitral, located towards the north-western side of Gilgit, used to pay tribute to Kashmir ruler. It was due to the untiring efforts of Maharaja Gulab Singh Ji ( the founder of Dogra Hindu dynasty in Kashmir) that the State took its present shape and form in the 2nd half of the 19th century.
The beauty and the salubrious climate of the valley was known even from the ancient times. The mythological traditions supported fully by the research of geologists confirm that the valley originally was a huge lake called "Satisar", ( the land of goddess Sati, consort of Lord Shiva ) and its waters were blocked near Baramulla (ancient Varahmulla). In the words of Sir Francis Young Husband, "The huge lake must have been twice the length and three times the width of the lake of Geneva, completely encircled by snowy mountains as high, and higher than Mount Blank, while in the immediately following glacial period, mighty glaciers came wending down to the Sindh, Lidder, and other valleys even to the edge of water."
Kashmir's greatest historian Kalhan writes about his native land : "It is a country where the sun shines mildly, being the place created by Rishi Kashyap, for his glory - big and lofty houses, learning, Saffron, icy cool water and grapes rare in Heaven are plentiful here - Kailash is the best place in the three worlds (Tri-lok), Himalayas the best place in Kailash, and Kashmir the best place in Himalayas".
Our immortal Sanskrit poet Kalidas writes about the valley :
"The place is more beautiful than the heaven and is the benefactor of supreme bliss and happiness. It seems to me that I am taking a bath in the lake of nectar here."
Sir Walter Lawrence writes "The valley is an emerald set in pearls; a land of lakes, clear streams, green turf, magnificient trees and mighty mountains where the air is cool, and the water sweet, where men are strong, and women vie with the soil in fruitfulness. " He further writes that the valley contains everything which should make life enjoyable. There is sport varied and excellent, there is scenery for the artist and the layman, mountain for the mountaineer, flower for the Botanist, a vast field for the Geologist and magnificient ruins for the archaeologist.

Pre-Historic Times

According to the oldest extant book on Kashmir, " Nilmat Puran ", in the Satisar lived a demon called Jalod Bowa, who tortured and devoured the people, who lived near mountain slopes. Hearing the suffering of the people, a great saint of our country, Kashyap by name, came to the rescue of the people here. After performing penance for a long time, the saint was blessed, and he was able to cut the mountain near Varahmulla, which blocked the water of the lake from flowing into the plains below. The lake was drained, the land appeared, and the demon was killed. The saint encouraged people from India to settle in the valley. The people named the valley as Kashyap-Mar and Kashyap-Pura. The name Kashmir also implies land desicated from water: "ka" (the water ) and shimeera (to desicate). The ancient Greeks called it "Kasperia" and the Chinese pilgrim Hien-Tsang who visited the valley around 631 A. D. called it KaShi-Mi-Lo ". In modern times the people of Kashmir have shortened it into "Kasheer" in their tongue. Regarding pre-historic times, Dr. Sunil Chandra Ray writes: " Pre-historic explorations have discovered the occurence of quaternary Glacial cycles in the valley. The chief Geological formation of the ice-age here are the lacustrine deposits called the " Karewas ", which overlay the terminal moraines of the first Glaciation and are comprised of two groups, Lower and Upper, differentiated by the moraines of the second Glaciation. The fossil remains of Elphas-hysudrious obtained in the lower 'Karewas' point to lower " Pleistocene age ", writes De Teera. The neolithic culture is indicated by the discovery of ground and polished stone axes, hoes, pestle, and bone implements at the well-known menhir-site of Burzahom, ten miles east of , Srinagar. Burazahoma is famous as one of the only two megalithic sites in the extreme north-west of Indian sub-continent. We do not exactly know the Cultural horizon of the Burazahoma megalithic, nor the Purpose for which they were erected, but the indications are, they were put in places towards the end of the neolithic period at that site, between 400 to 300 B. C."
In 1960, Archaeological Department of the Govt. of India began systematic excavation at this site. Near about the siltbed, pits have been discovered in sections, indicating a settlement of early Pit dwellers whose date has tentatively been fixed at 3000 B.C. This is Perhaps the only known find of such a settlement in India. It is possible that more valuable data would be found, when extensive surface diggings are completed.

Hindu Period

Kalhan has started the history of Kashmir just before the great Mahabharat war, and the first King mentioned by him is Gonanda I, whose initial year of reign he places in 653 Kali-era, the traditional date of the coronation of King Yudhistira, the eldest brother of the Pandvas. Gonanda was killed in a battle along with his son in India, and at the time of the commencement of the Mahabharat war, Gonanda II was ruling Kashmir. After his death, the great historion informs that the record of 35 kings who ruled the valley could not be traced by him, because of the destruction of the record. However a modern scholar Peer Zada Hassan has given a brief record of these Kings from a Persian work composed during the time of Sultan Zainul-Abdeen ( 1420-70 ). The author of this work Mulla Ahmad had been able to obtain the names of these kings from an earlier Sanskrit work " Ratnakar ". The great Mauryan emperor Ashoka is recorded to have ruled Kashmir, and Kalhan rightly mentions that the king was a follower of Buddhism. Ashoka founded the old city of Srinagar called now as " Pandrethan ", ( Puranadhisthan ) and also build many vihars and temples and repaired the old shrine. At Vijeshwari (modern Bijbehra), he built a Shiva Temple, thus winning the heart of the local population, who were mostly worshippers of Lord Shiva. It was Majjhantika, a celebrated Buddhist missionary who was deputed to Kashmir and Urvasa to preach the faith of Buddha in those territories. Hien-Tsang mentions the arrival of 500 monks to Kashmir, and Ashoka making a gift of the valley to Sangha. Many Buddhist scholars, missionaries, and intellectuals permanently settled in the valley. Naturally, in course of time, many people embraced Buddhism here. According to local tradition, like Lord Shri Krishna, Lord Buddha is also supposed to have visited Kashmir. Writes Sir Charles Elliot in a book called 'Hinduism and Buddhism': "For some two centuries after Gautam's death, we have little information as to the geographical extension of his doctrine, but some of the sanskrit versions of the " Vinaya ", represent him visiting Mathura, north-west India and Kashmir. After the death of Ashoka, his son Jaluka ascended the throne of Kashmir, and the latter was succeeded by his son King Damodar II. Jaluka was a great king who cleared the valley of oppressing 'Malechas', ( foreign unclean tribes). King Damodar lives in our memory even at present, for the Srinagar Air-port is located at Damodar I Karewa ', where the king is supposed to have lived in a big palace and, where again, he was transformed into a snake by the curse of a Brahmin. The scholars also, accept the theory that the valley for over two hundred years was ruled by Indo-Greek Kings before the start of " Turushka " ( Kushan ) rule in the state. Cunningham records a large find of silver coins of Azes ( and Azilies ) (coins of Indo-Scythians) on the banks of Vitasta (river Jhelum) in the hills between Varahmulla and Jhelum. The contact with the Greeks is responsible for the beautiful architectural, and sculptural style of old Kashmir temples, and the coinage of later Kashmir Kings has also been influenced by this contact. Kalhan's account of Turushka Kings,indicates without any doubt the Kushan occupation of the Valley. The three kings mentioned by him are Huska, Juska, and Kanishka, each of them is credited with the foundation of a town, christened after their respective names : Hushkapura, Jushkapura and Kanishkapura. The Kushan Kings also built many temples and Vihars. According to many scholars, Kanishka held the third great council of the Buddhist church at " Kundalvan ", (Harwan, near Shalimar garden) Hien Tsang has given the proceedings of this council. Nearly 500 Buddhist and Hindu scholars attended this conference, and a learned Kashmir Brahmin Vasumitra presided over its session. Some of the great Buddhist scholars, who took active part in this council were Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna, Vasubandu Sugamitra and Jinamitra. Hien-Tsang praises the intellectual calibre of the Kashmir scholars, and considered them as incomparable. The entire proceedings of the conference were inscribed on copper plates in Sanskrit, enclosed in stone boxes, deposited in a Vihar. Like famous Gilgit manuscripts, it is possible that these copper plates mav be unearthed in near future, and we would learn much about the rich cultural history of the valley. As a result of this conference, large number of Kashmiri intellectuals took to missionary work and hundreds of the wisest sons of the valley carried the torch of Indian civilisation and culture to many parts of central Asia, China, Tibet and other places. Dr. P. C. Bagchi, a noted Indologist and scholar of repute, writes in his excellent book ' India and China': " Kashmir takes the leading part in the transmission of Buddhist thought and traditions directly to Tibet, and China. The number of Buddhist scholars who went to China from Kashmir is larger than that of those who went from other parts of India. Kashmir was the most flourishing centre of Buddhist learning in this period. It was the centre of most powerful Buddhist sect of Northern India known as 'Sarvastivada'. A few of the most important Kashmir Missionaries were Kumarjiva, Yasa, Vima Laksha, Sanghbuti, Gautam Sangha, Buddviyasa, Buddhijiva, Gunavarman, Dharamputra and Shyama Bhata.
After Kanishka, local weak rulers continued to govern the state, till we hear from Kalhan, the arrival of Mahir-Gul, the notorious Hun invader of our country. Kalhan correctly represents him as a savage cruel king, whose approach became known by the sight of thousands of vultures, crows and the like in the sky, eager to feed on those being massacred by his encircling army. While crossing Pir Panchal pass, the tyrant rolled down one hundred elephants from a mountain pass. The shrieks and the yells of the dying elephants greatly delighted this fiend. Till the advent of Karkota dynasty (beginning of 8th Century) the Gonanda dynasty gave Kashmir only two notable rulers viz. Meghvahan and Pravansein. The former was a pious and a strong ruler with Buddhist leanings. He stopped killing of animals and birds throughout his Kingdom. In fact, he undertook conquest of many countries solely for the purpose of stopping animal slaughter. His chief queen Amrit Prabha built 'Amrit Bhawan' Vihar for foreign pilgrims and students who came to Kashmir in large numbers for learning. The next great King was Praversein II in whose time people enjoyed perfect peace and prosperity, He was a great conqueror who extended the boundaries of the state in all directions. He has made his name immortal by founding the city of Praverseinpura (modern city of Srinagar), the summer capital of the state at present. Praversein ruled ably for 60 years and is supposed to have directly ascended to heaven while worshipping Lord Shiva in his temple 'Pravesha' now standing in ruins near Hari-Parbat fort.
It was during the time of first king of Karkota dynasty, Durlabvardhan that the oreat Chinese pilgrim, Hien-Tsang visited Kashmir and entered the valley via Varahmulla where he found a huge stone gate. The entry of all outsiders, except the Hindus, was banned in the state then. Hien-Tsang was given a right royal reception by the people including the king. He stayed in Kashmir for nearly two years, studied Sanskrit and Hindu scriptures at the feet of learned men here.
It is the Karkota dynasty that has given Kashmir the greatest ruler Lalitaditya Muktapid ( 724- 761 A. D.). He is undoubtedly the Samudra Gupta of Kashmir. He was filled with an unquenchable thirst of world conquest. He invaded and conquered many countries in Asia and India. The Punjab, Kanuj, Tibet, Ladhak, Badakshan, Iran, Bihar, Gauda (Bengal) Kalinga (Orissa), South India, Gujarat, Malwa, Marwar and Sindh were all conquered by him. It was he, who finally broke the power of Arabs in Sindh. All these unbroken victories created a feeling of pride among the people here and his victories came to be celebrated in a big way. Kalhan who wrote his famous chronicle (Rajatarangini) nearly four hundred years after the death of Lalitaditya, records that even in his time the victories of the great victor were being celebrated throughout the valley. Alberuni, who accompanied Mahmud Gaznavi in his Indian Campaigns, specifically mentions in his book ( Tahqiq-i-Hind ) that Kashmiris observed second of Chaitra, as the day of victory. Lalitaditya was equally a great builder and he built his capital near the sacred shrine of Khir-Bhawani, and gave it the name of Parihaspur (city of pleasure). Throughout the valley, he built very fine and massive temples, out of which the world famous sun temple (Martand) built on Mattan Karewa, reminds us about the granduer and splendour of the times when their builder ruled the state. The extensive ruins of his capital city Parihaspur, speak of his activities in the field of art and architecture. After his death, it is mostly the weak rulers except his grand son Jayatida, who ruled the valley. Both Lalitaditya, and Jayatida were great patrons of learning and extended their partonage to Bhavabhuti, Vakpatrija, Udhata Bhata, Damodhar Gupta, Manoratha, Sankhdanta and Samadhimat etc. The history of Karkota dynasty after Jayatida is a sad story of decline. All the conquered territories regained their independence, and the sovereignty of the ruler of Kashmir came to be confined to Vitasta basin. The economic ruin was hastened by the extravagant habits of both the rulers and the ministers. In the words of Kalhan : " the ministers and the grandees carried-off the revenues of the country, feasted in mutal jealousy on the masterless kingdom, like wolves on a dead buffalo in a desert. " Inspite of all this the Karkota rule on the whole has been considered as the glorious and remarkable periods of ancient Kashmir. Laments Dr. P. C. Ray that " never before the Karkota period, had Kashmir performed such a feat, nor was she able to repeat it in future."
It was round about in 855-56 A. D. that Karkota rule ended, and a new Utpal Dynasty assumed power in Kashmir. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Maharaja Avanti-verman. It was he, who recovered Kashmir from utter political and economic disorder. His reign witnessed a period of peace and consolidation and prosperity. It was during this time, that the valley rose to great heights in the realm of philosophy, artand letters. There was an outburst of literary activity on a grand scale, and eminent men Kallata Bhat sura, Ratnakar, Anandavardhana, Muktakana, Siva-Swamin, Rudrata and Mukula. Kalhan's mention of numerous temples built and towns founded by the King, and his ministers throws plenty of light on the prosperous condition of the period. The most important foundation of the King was his capital city of Avantipur, which he embellished with two temples: one dedicated to Shiva, and other to Vishnu. Both of them are in ruins now, but even then, they stand as the most imposing monuments of ancient Kashmir.
The reign of this King would not be complete without the mention of 'Suya' one of the greatest engineer Kashmir produced in ancient times. For centuries the people of the valley had been suffering from the recurring curse of famines and floods. Suya correctly assessed that these frequent calamities occured due to heavy rains and excessive water of Vitasta river which could not easily get out with swiftness, through a gorge near Varahmulla, as the compressed passage there bad got blocked with silt and huge boulders. The people removed both the silt and stones when the great engineer threw plenty of gold and silver coins into the river at many places. Thousands of starving people immediately jumped into the flooded Vitasta and in order to find the coins, cleared the bed of the rocks and boulders which had choked up the passage. Suya, then raised stone embankments, and adopted other protective measures. Many canals were dug-out to increase the irrigational facilities. The result of all these measures was, that a great increase of land became available for cultivation. The production of paddy increased and the price of one Khirwar (nearly two mounds) came down to 36 Dinars from 200 Dinars. Suya's memory is still preserved to this day, by the town Sayapur (Sopore) founded by him at the point where river Vitasta, since his regulation leaves the basin of Mahapadomsar (Wouler lake). Avantivarman died in a temple on the Dal Lake, when a fatal disease caught him, and in the words of Kalhan, " listening to the end to the song of the Lord ( Bhagvatgeeta ) and thinking of the residence of Vishnu (Vaikuntha) he cast off his earthly life with a cheerful mind. " (June 883) Avantivarman was succeeded by his son Shankarvarman, but then the decline of Utpal dynasty set in. In the time of King Yasakara (939-48) a 'Math' ( hospice ) was built for the students of India, who came to Kashmir for study and meditation. It clearly reveals intimate cultural contact between the valley, and plains of India in the 10th century. In 950, Khemgupta ascended the throne of Kashmir, a man of mediocre ability who married princess Didda, daughter of the ruler of Lohara (Poonch) and grand daughter of the Shahi king of Kabul. After the eclipse of Utpala dynasty, Lohara dynasty ruled Kashmir till the end of the Hindu rule in Kashmir (1339). Queen Didda was the defacto ruler of the state, as she was very dominating and exercised immense influence over her husband. She built many temples and monasteries and one of these was reserved for people of Madyadesha and Lata (U. P., Bihar and Central India). In 980 A.D. Didda ascended the throne after the death of her husband. Before her, two other queens had ruled Kashmir namely Yashovati and Sugandha. Didda was a very unscrupulous, and wilful lady and led a very immoral life. But inspite of these drawbacks, she was an able ruler, who firmly ruled the valley. She died in 1003 A. D. and left the throne of Kashmir to her family in undisputed succession. As her children had died young, she transmitted the crown to Sangramraj, son of her brother Udairaj, the ruler of Lohara (Poonch).
It was during her time, that Mahmud Gaznavi twice tried to capture the valley but the fort at Lohara, remarkable for its height and strength proved impregnable. The Sultan was obliged to abandon the conquest.
From 1089 to 1101 A. D., King Harsha ruled Kashmir. Versed in many languages, a good poet, lover of music and art, he started his rule in a remarkable way, and became famous in northern India. His court was a centre of luxury and splendour. He introduced new fashions in dress and ornaments. His ministers were gorgeously dressed, wore earrings and head dresses, previously reserved for the members of ruling families only. But strangely enough, Harsha's career became a record of follies and misdeeds. The people also suffered from famine, and plague as well, and a considerable section of people became victims of these calamities. A confusion followed these misfortunes, leading to a general rising of the people under two royal princes Uccalia and Succalla. Harsha along with his son Bhoja were murdered, and the Kashmir throne passed into the hands of two princes respectively. Both the princes met the fate of Harsha and when our great historian Kalhan completed his 'Rajatarangini' in 1149 - 50 King Jaisimha, the last great ruler of the Hindu times was ruling the state.
Jaisimha's (1128-55) early days were critical, because of the preceeding civil wars and political unrest. Still the new ruler was able to maintain his firm rule for 27 years in comparative safety. The King repaired and restored many temples and shrines, and numerous other pious foundations were also made during his reign. The people after a long time heaved a sigh of relief. From 1155 - 1339, the Kashmir rulers remained busy only in intrigues, debauchery, and mutual quarrels. These incessant feuds, civil wars, risings and upheavals greatly weakened Hindu domination of Kashmir. The valley soon fell a prey to Mongol and Turkish raiders, free booters and foreign adventurers. Quite naturally, the boundaries of the Kingdom got shrunk, and were reduced to the peoper valley only. The Kabul valley Proutonsa (Poonch), Pajapuri (Rajauri) Kangra, Jammu, Kisthwar and Ladhak, one after the other threw-off their allegiance to the rulers of Kashmir.
In the beginning of 14th century a ferocious Mongol, Dulucha invaded the valley through its northern side Zojila Pass, with an army of 60,000 men. Like Taimur in the Punjab and Delhi, Dulucha carried sword and fire, destroyed towns and villages and slaughtered thousands. His savage attack practically ended the Hindu rule in Kashmir. A weak and worthless man Raja Sahadev was the ruler then. It was during his reign that three adventurers, Shah Mir from Swat ( Tribal) territory on the borders of Afganistan, Rinchin from Ladhak, and Lankar Chak from Dard territory near Gilgit came to Kashmir, and played a notable role in subsequentive political history of the valley. All the three men were granted Jagirs by the King. Rinchin for 3 years became the ruler of Kashmir, Shah Mir was the first rular of Shah Miri-dynasty, and the decendants of Lankar Chak established Chak rule in the Kashmir.
The last Hindu ruler of Kashmir was Udyan Dev. It was his chief Queen Kota Rani, who practically governed the state. She was a very brave lady, shrewd and an able ruler. Though she tried her best to save her Kingdom, odds were too heavy for her. The valley was again invaded by a Mongal and Turk invader Achalla, but the Queen defeated him, and drove away all the foreign troops. In the confusion Rinchin, the Ladhaki prince, whom the Hindu religious leaders of the time refused to admit into their fold, organised an internal rising and seized the throne. Before his death, he embraced Islam. Finally another rising was led by Shah Mir, who defeated the queen at Jayapur (modern Sumbal). The defeat upset her and seeing the indifference of the Hindu grandees and general public, she stabbed herself to death, because Shah Mir wanted to marry her. Her death in 1339 paved the way tor the establishment of Muslim rule in Kashmir.

An Assessment of Hindu Rule

Before switching over to the early Muslim period, it would be proper to point out, very briefly of course, the contribution of people here, in the field of Philosophy, Literature and Archaeology. In the field of Philosophy Kashmir's contribution is the "Shiva School of thought", which assumed a distinctive character in the valley. "It is known as Trika (Triple) Shastra, as it pertains to the three vital matters of greatest importance namely (a) man (b) his universe and (c) fundamental principle which keeps on restoring order, equilibrium and harmony in the universe where it is disturbed and disrupted by constant change. " Trika, interested in man and his personality, and considers complete freedom (Swatantrya) as the one and the final goal of human life. Shiva is another name for independence, and the only reality of the universe is Shiva who is infinite consciousness, and unrestricted independence. He has many other features like omnipresence, eternality, and formlessness, though independence is peculier to him. Shiva is the subject as well as the object, the experience, as well as the experienced ". (P. N. Bazaz). The three great Acharyas of this school are Vasugupta, Kallatha and the great Abhinavagupta. Hundreds of other Kashmiri philosophers, and thinkers wrote, masterpieces on this philosophy in the subsequent periods of our history.
Another distinct school of philosophy was the emergence of Mahayana Form of Buddhism during the time of Kanishka, when the 3rd Buddhist Council met here at Harwan. It was Vasumitra and Nagarjuna who gave shape and form to this new school of thought. Nagarjuna, in the words of Havell, was the Luther of Buddhism, the apostle of Bhaktimarga, who would find means of expression for the deep seated religious instinct of the masses, through the way of devotion to the divine teacher, rather than through the dry agnostic philosophy of Hinayana School. This creed became very popular in China, Japan, Tibet and Ladakh. Nagarjuna has been raised to the exalted position of Buddistava and enjoys the reputation of being the greatest thinker of the age. In the field of Literature, there is hardly any branch of learning which the people of Kashmir had not studied, and to which they did not make their own original contribution. In philosophy, religion, medicine, astronomy, literature, engineering, sculpture, architecture, painting, music, dancing, and in many other walks of life the progress of Kashmiries during the ancient times is astonishing and striking.
In the words of Grieson, "for upwards of two thousand years, Kashmir has been the home of Sanskrit learning and from this small valley have issued masterpieces of history, poetry, romance, fable, and philosophy. Kashmiries are justly proud of the literary glories of their land. For centuries Kashmir was the house of the greatest Sanskrit scholars, and at least one great Indian religion of 'Shaivism' has found some of its most eloquent teachers on the banks of the Vitasta. Some of the greatest Sanskrit scholars and poets were born, and wrote in the valley and from it has issued in Sanskrit language a world famous collection of folk-lore." (Panchtantra.)
In the domain of architecture, the charm of Kashmir, apart from its magnificent natural scenery, lies in its temples and fine arts. Wrote one European art critic: "Ancient India has nothing more worthy of its civilization, than the grand remains in Kashmir, the massive, the grotesque the elegant in architecture, may be admired in many parts of India, but now here is to be seen, the counterparts of the classically graceful, yet symmetrically massive edifices of Kashmir, and in beauty, and position are immensely superior. " The best preserved of these stone temples are at Martand and Avantipur. The Martand temple has been universely admired by the archeologists and the artists. I need describe the opinion of three great Europeans of modern times :
Writes Stein: " It is no longer possible to trace with certainty, the cities, and remains of all the towns and structures which owed their existence to Lalitaditya. But those among them which can be identified justly by their extant ruins, the great fame which Lalitaditya enjoyed as a builder. The ruins of the splendid temple of Martand which the king had constructed near the 'Tirtha' of the same name, are still the most striking object of ancient Hindu architecture in the valley. Even in their present state of decay, they command admiration both by their imposing dimensions, and by the beauty of their architectural design and decoration."
Writes Sir Francis Young Husband: "...... built on the most sublime site occupied by any building in the world-finer than the site of Parthenon, or of the Taj Mahal, or of St. Peters or of the Escurial-we may take it, as the representative or rather the culmination of all the rest, and by it, we must judge the Kashmir people at their best. On a perfectly open, and even plain, gently sloping away from a background of a snowy mountains looking directly out, on the entire length both of the smiling Kashmir valley, and of the snowy ranges which bound it-so situated in fact as to be encircled, yet not overwhelmed by snowy mountains-stand the ruins of a temple second only to the Egyptians in massiveness and strength, and to the Greeks in elegance and grace..... No one without an eye for natural beauty would have chosen that special site for the construction of a temple, and no one with an inclination to the emphemeral and transient world have built it, on so massive, and enduring a scale.
Writes H. Gotezi " The temple of Martand set the model for Kashmir Hindu Art in all the following centuries.... Thus Lalitaditya must be regarded as the founder not only of shortlived empire, but also of six centuries of Kashmir Hindu Art. "

Muslim Period

After the death of Queen Kota, Shah Mir ascended the throne under the name of Sultan Shamas-ud-din, and his dynasty ruled the state for 222 years. This period is one of the most important in the annals of Kashmir, in as much as Islam was firmly established here. The Shah-Miri dynasty has given us only two rulers, who are worthy of mention. One is Sultan Shihabud-din, and the second is the great Sultan Zain-ul-Abdin. The former ascended the throne in 1354, and continued to rule till 1373. He was full of energy, and vigour and he was able to establish his sway over the neighbouring countries. His army mainly consisted of Damras, Lavans and the hill tribes of Poonch, Rajapuri and Kishtwar. The important commanders who served under him were both Hindus and Muslims, such as Chandra-Damra, Laula Damara, Shura, Syed Hassan and Abdul Raina. His two important Hindu ministers were Kota Bhat and Udyashri. At the begining of his reign, he led an army to Sindh and defeated its ruler. While returning he defeated Afgans near Peshawar and then he conquered Kabul, Gazni, Qandhar, Pakhali, Swat and Multan. He invaded Badakshan, and then marched towards Dardistan and Gilgit, which he easily conquered. Then he marched towards Bulochistan and Ladhak. The ruler of Kashgar (central Asia) came with a huge army and Shah-u-din whose army was numerically inferior, inflicted a crushing defeat and the Kashgar army was almost wiped out. This led to the annexation of Laddhak and Bultistan, which were claimed by the Kashgar ruler. It is also said that the ruler or Kashmir marched towards Delhi, and on the way conquered Kangra, and then the army of Ferozashah Tughlaq opposed him on the banks of Sutluj. Since the battle between the rulers of the Delhi and Kashmir was indecisive, peace was concluded and it was agreed that all the territory from Sirhind to Kashmir was to belong to the Kashmir ruler. Shah-ud-din was not only a great conqueror but also an able administrator, and he governed his kingdom with firmness and justice. He was tolerant ruler and treated his Hindu subjects generously. It is reported that owing to prolonged campaigns he needed money, and his ministers asked him to loot the temples, but he stoutly opposed the proposal, and to quote Jonaraj, he is reported to have said in anger: "Past generation have set-up images to obtain fame, and earn merit, and you propose to demolish them. Some have obtained renown by setting up images of gods, others by worshipping them, some by maintaining them, and you propose demolishing them. How great is the enormity of such a deed ". The king founded a new town which he called Shihab-ud-din-pora, known now as Shadipur. He is also said to have erected many mosques and monasteries. Shihab-ud-din can rightly be called the Lalitaditya of medieval Kashmir. During his time Kashmir armies marched to distant lands, and our victorious banners were unfurled on many forts of foreign countries. Thus this great ruler raised Kashmir to great eminence, and power.
The next ruler was Sultan Qutab-ud-din, and in whose time the only important event worth mentioning is the arrival of said Ali Hamdani, who was the most remarkable personality of the then muslim world. At the time of his third visit he got with himself 700 Syeds from Hamdan, who were being out to torture by Timur, ruler of Persia. These syeds established their centres of missonery activities in different parts of the valley. In 1389, Qutab-ud-din died, and he was succeeded by his eldest son Sultan-Sikandar. It was in the time of this Sultan, that the political atmosphere of the state was vitiated. Whereas all former rulers had followed a policy of religious toleration, the new Sultan like Aurangazeb was a man of puritan temperament. He banned all gay celebrations and would not listen to music even. He imposed Jizia upon Hindus and stopped them to use tilak on their fore-heads. Writes M. Hassan: "In their misplaced zeal for their faith, Sikandar and his minister Saif-ud-din (who was originally a Hindu) were also responsible for the destruction of images and temples ." Almost all the muslim chroniclers speak of the wholesale destruction of Hindu shrines including the 'Martand' Temple, and forcible conversion of Hindus to Islam. Thousands of Hindus fled to India to save their religion and holy books, and also to escape the wrath of the Sultan. Shahi-Khan or Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, ascended the throne in 1420 A. D. and ruled upto 1470 A. D. nearly for half a century. His accession to the throne, proved to be the return of a bright and warm day after a cold and a chilly night. In the words of Pandit Anand Kaul: "possessed of a broad and tolerant outlook, with a desire to benefit mankind, he ruled with such equity, and justice and did so much to improve the material prosperity of the people, that one can not fail to admire him, his benevolent rule demands special homage in as much as he lived in a period when he had no worthy and enlightened contemporary to emulate. In the world around him, he could have little to help him. He was a potentate encouraged to be tyrannical and selfish by tradition, and especially by the examples of his father, Sultan Sikander. Zain-ul-Abidin was deservedly surnamed Budshah or the great King. In spite of 5 centuries having rolled by since he ruled, his name is still remembered with genuine reverence and gratitude. Take the name of Budshah before a Kashmiri, and at once with a happy countenance he will rhyme it with Pad-Shah ". Writes another modern historian M. Hassan : " of all the Sultans who sat on the throne of Kashmir, Zainulabidin was undoubtedly the greatest. He ushered in a period of nearly half a century of peace, prosperity, and benevolent rule for his people. He introduced many arts and crafts for which Kashmir has become famous ever since. He promoted learning, music and painting and made Kashmir the centre of great culture. He won the loyality and affection of his subjects who called him Budshah or the great king, a name by which he is remembered even to day by the people of Kashmir. He acquired a halo in popular imagination which still surrounds his name inspite of the lapse of nearly 500 years."
Zain-ul Abidin organized a huge army, and with its help he reconquered the Punjab, Western Tibet, Ladhak and Balti region, Kulu and Ohind ( Hazara ). The Sultan also maintained cordial and friendly relations with rulers of other countries. The Sheriff of Macca and the Kings of Jilan and Egypt sent him presents. The Maharaja of Gwalior, hearing that the Sultan was interested in Music, sent him valuable works on Indian music. There was also an exchange of embassies and gifts between the great Sultan and the rulers of Sindh, Bengal, Tibet, Gujrat, Malwa and Delhi. The Sultan improved the tone of administration which had rudely been shaken. He appointed talented persons in high administrative posts, irrespective of caste or creed. The Sultan had a high sense of justice and no one who committed a crime was spared, however close he was to throne. Many grandees who were favourites of the king, were severly punished when found guilty. The king took keen interest in agriculture and like Lalitaditya and Avantivarman, many canals were dug out in all parts of the Kingdom. Jonraj and Shriva have given details of these canals in their valuable books. Owing to these irrigation works, the draining of marshes and reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in food, and rice was cheap.
One of the most outstanding features of his administration was the just and liberal treatment of the Hindus, who were not only allowed complete freedom of worship, but the Sultan recalled all those who had fled to India in the time of his father. He allowed those Hindus who had forcibly been converted, to return to their former religion. The Sultan banned cow slaughter and permitted the repair and rebuilding of the temples at government expenses. He granted lands to learned Brahmins, endowed temples and for Hindu pilgrims visiting holy places in the valley he opened a royal kitchen at Rainawari known even now as Jogi Lanker. Jiziya was almost abolished and the Sultan participated in Hindu festivals and entertained Brahmins and Sadhus on auspicious days. Some of his important Hindu ministers were the famous physician Shri Bhat, Tilakacharya, Simha Bhat, Ruppa Bhat, Karupar Bhat and Shrivara. At the same time Sultan was a great patron of men of letters such as Syed Mohammud Rumi, Syed Ahmad Rumi, Quazi Syed Ali Shirazi, Qazi Jamal and Maulana Kabir to mention only a few. The Sultan had also established a translation department where important works were translated from Sanskrit into Persian and Arabic. The Sultan opened schools and hostels for the students. It is for encouragement of arts and crafts that Kashmir will be permanently indebted to the Sultan. In the Hindu times, the valley was equally famous for its arts and crafts but these had greatly suffered in the chaos which lasted for over two hundred years. The Sultan invited competant teachers from countries to Kashmir, so that they could train people here. Among many industries introduced by him, we can mention carpet, paper machine, paper making, silk rearing, shawls, manufacture of gun powder etc. Kashmir became so famous for beautiful designs on silks and shawls that our state acquired an unrivalled fame in Asia. Even after a century when Babar's cousin Mirza Haider Daulghat invaded Kashmir, he wrote in Tarikhi-Reshidi: "In Kashmir one meets with all these arts and crats which are in most cities uncommon, such as stone polishing, stone cutting, bottle making window cutting, gold beating etc. In the whole Maver-ul-Nahir ( Khorasan ) except in Samarkand, and Bokhara, these are nowhere to be met with, while in Kashmir they are in abundance. This is all due to Zain-ul-Abidin." The Sultan was a great builder. He founded the new city called Nowshedar ( a part of the city now. ) He adorned it with splendid houses for his officers, courtiers and learned men. He built a palace of 12 storeys in it, each containing 50 rooms, halls and corridors. It was surmounted by a golden dome, and its spacious halls were lined with glass. Besides Nowshader, the Sultan founded the town of Zainapur, Zainakut and Zainagir. Similarly he built the first wooden bridge at Srinagar known even now as Zainakadal. In 1470 A. D. the Sultan died and for a long time his death was mourned by the people. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin's death sounded the death knell of Shah-Miri dynasty. It met the same fate that the Lohara dynasty had met after the death of Jaisimha in 1156. The only important event that took place before the establishment of Chak dynasty was the invasion of Mirza Haider Dughlat who attacked Kashmir from Zogila pass in 1533. Soon he was able to establish his ascendancy in the valley. The Moghul, like Dulchu earlier, killed, looted and plundered the people, and made women and children their slaves. The Sultan of Kashmir, Nazuk Shah, became almost a puppet in his hands. Moghuls were appointed on high posts everywhere, and the Jagirs of Kashmir Noblemen were confiscated. For more than a decade Mirza was the virtual ruler of the valley and he gave peace and orderly Government to the country. He encouraged Kashmir Art and Crafts, and trade and commerce once again thrived in the valley. The last Shahmiri ruler, Sultan Habib Shah, a weakling was deposed by his commander, and nobles raised on throne Gazi Chak, a prominent military General of the time. He was the direct descendant of Lankar Chak who had come to Kashmir towards the close of Hindu rule. The Chak rule began in Kashmir in 1561 and lasted till 1587, when Akbar, the great Moghul Emperor conquered Kashmir.

Moghul Period

The Moghuls remained in power here, from 1587 to 1752, and in this period undoubtedly the people enjoyed peace and orderly Govt. There were some rapacious officers, but on the complaint of the people the Moghul rulers immediately removed them. It was in 1579 that illuminated Moghul emperor Akbar visited Kashmir. About eighty thousand Kashmiris were entertained by Akbar at Id-Gah. During his reign Raja Todar Mal, the great Finance and Revenue Minister, made revenue settlement of the valley, which in its broad features forms the basis of the present revenue settlement in the valley. Akbar built a new town near Hariparbat and called it Nagar-Magar and built the massive wall around the hill. The great emperor visited the valley three times, and with him, came a large number of Moghul grandees, noblemen and army generals. The fame of the valley spread throughout the country and a very large number of people started to visit the valley. But actually it was in the time of Jahangir that the beauty of the state attracted thousands of visitors to the happy valley. The great emperor visited the State thirteen times. The Moghul rulers never came alone, but were always accompanied by hundreds of Nobles, Amirs and Umras, Princes and Army Generals. Jahangir came virtually, under the spell of the scenic beauty of the place, and wherever he found a hill coming down gently to a spring or a grove of majestic Chinar trees or a beautiful lake, he utilised the place for planting a pleasure garden. Shalimar and Nishat gardens on the banks of Dal Lake, would keep Jahangir's love for natural beauty ever fresh in our memory. He laid gardens at Achable and Verinag. Perhaps no other ruler has ever paid so much tribute to the beauty of Kashmir as Jahangir did. Shah Jahan also visited the happy valley a number of times and he too was accompanied by a large number of nobles. Owing to the long peaceful rule of the three Moghul Kings, hundreds of people now began to come to Kashmir to find mental peace, to regain their health or attain spiritual salvation. Shah Jahan laid the garden of Chashmashai and also built a portion of Shalimar. The Moghul Governor Ali Marden Khan also laid out a number of gardens. Aurangzeb visited Kashmir only once in 1665. An interesting account of the emperor's journey to the valley has been given by a French traveller Francis Bernier who accompanied the Emperor. The traveller gives a favourable impression of the people in his book. "The Kashmiris are celebrated for wit. In poetry and sciences they are not inferior to Persians. They are also active and industrious. The workmanship, and beauty of their Palkies, bed steads, inkstand, axes, spoons and various other things are quite remarkable, and articles of their manufacture are in use in every part of India. They perfectly understand the art of varnishing, and are eminently skilful in closely imitating the beautiful veins of a certain wood, by inlaying with gold threads so delicately wrought, that never saw anything more elegant or perfect. But what may be considered peculiar to Kashmir and the staple commodity, that which particularly promotes the trade of the country, and fills it with wealth, is the prodigious quantity of shawls which they manufacture, and which gives occupation to her children."
Aurangezeb's reign was a signal for revolts and rebellions in several parts of the country. In distant parts of the empire commenced an era of lawlessness, anarchy and disorder. Many states became independent under their subedhars who founded new independent states. A reign of disorder also started in Kashmir. The Moghul Governors began to loot and plunder the people, and at the same time ruthlessly started a policy of religious bigotry and fanaticism. There was absolute chaos in northern India after the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia. The people of Kashmir could no longer tolerate the misrule of Moghul satraps, and accordingly when Ahmad Shah Abdali of Kabul was at Lahore in 1752, two Kashmir nobleman Mir Muquim Kant and Khwaj'a Zahir Didmari, waited upon him at Lahore, and disgracefully requested him to bring Kashmir under his control.

Afgan Rule : 1752 - 1819

Ahmad Shah, a free hooter of Nadir Shah gladly accepted this offer and immediately despatched a strong and a powerful Afgan army under the command of Abdullah Khan lshik Aqasi, to occupy the valley. The Moghul satrap offered a strong resistance, but was defeated and the Afgan Governor planted the Afgan flag on the ramparts of Akbar's town at Nogar. The rule of Moghuls in Kasmir came to an end although it continued to exist in northern India, nominally upto 1857. Kashmir remained a dependency of Kabul rulers till 1819, roughly a period of 67 years. The Pathan rule is the darkest period in the history of our state. The rulers of Kabul were great despots, and they ruled all the parts of their kingdom ruthlessly and with an iron hand. The corner stone of their policy was terror. As many as twenty eight Durrani Subedars governed Kashmir during these sixty seven years. The Kashmir nobleman had expected that Abdali would give them a good and a stable government, but the very first Afgan governor Abdullah Khan Aquasi, immediately after assuming powers started a reign of terror. People began to be looted and killed indiscriminately, and even the petty Afgan soliders began to amass wealth by the foulest possible means. Most of the well to do people of the valley were summoned by the Governor to his palace, and ordered to surrender all their wealth on pain of death. Their houses were completey sacked, and many people were put to sword. There was complete gloom and despair on every side. All the prosperity of the valley was gone, and the people could not even move on the streets, for fear of being robbed of even their scanty clothing. Each and everyday for a Kashmiri was a day of struggle and uncertainty. As ill luck would have it, only weak and worthless Amirs governed Kabul, after the death of Abdali. These Amirs would either be quickly deposed or assassinated. Naturally accession of every new Amir would mean appointment of a new Subedar in Kashmir. Hence every Governor expected his recall or dismissal at any time. This unertainty made these rapacious governors ruthless, and they squeezed every penny from the people mercilessly.
It is true, that all sections of people suffered here during their time, but the chief vicitims of these fiends were the Hindus, Shias and Bombas of Jhelum valley.
It is strange that during this dark period a Hindu also became a Governor here. His name was Raja Sukh Jeevan Mal. It was only in his time that Kashmir heaved a sigh of relief. He was afterwards defeated and killed by Ahmad Shah. The Pathan rulers are now only rememberd for their brutality and cruelity, and it is said of them that they thought no more of cutting off heads than plucking a flower.

Sikh Rule: 1819-46

At last the reign of terror broke the patience of the peace loving people, and a deputation of Kashmiris led by Pandit Birbal Dhar, and his son Pandit Rajakak Dhar, left for Lahore and fervently requested Maharaja Ranjit Singh to conquer Kashmir. Three prominent Muslims helped Pandit Birbal Dhar in his escape from the valley. They were Abdul Qadoos Gojwari, Mallick Zulfiqar and Malik Kamgar. In 1819, 30,000 soliders of Maharaja Ranjit Singh attacked Kashmir, defeated the Pathans, and the state became a part of Ranjit Singh's empire. On receipt of the news ,Maharaja Ranjit Singh bestowed honours in Dhar family and Lahore was illuminated for three days, Sikh rule lasted for only 27 years and during this period 10 Governors administersd the country one after another, out of whom the last two were Muslims. In the beginning Sikh rule also proved to be oppressive. " It must have been an intense relief ", writes Lawrence, " to all classes in Kashmir to see the downfall of the evil rule of Pathan, and to none was the relief greater than to the peasants who had been cruely fleeced by the rapacious sardars of Kabul. I do not mean to suggest that the Sikh rule was benign or good, but it was at any rate better that that of the Pathans. " The Sikh rule over Kashmir lasted only for a brief span of time, during which the rulers at Lahore were far too pre-occupied at home to pay any attention to the affairs of this outlying province of theirs. The misery of the people increased due to natural calamities as well, such as premature snow falls, which would destroy a ripe rice crop leading to famines. These famines were followed by diseases like cholera and plague, resulting in a heavy loss of life. Thousands of people migrated to India during these hard days, and no wonder the population of the valley came down to two lakhs from 8 lakhs. Mr. Ranel Tayler who visited Kashmir in 1846 writes about Kashmir, "The town presents a very miserable apperance. The houses made of wood are tumbling in every direction. The streets are filthy for want of drainage, none of the bazars looked wellfilled and prospseous and altogether my ride made me very unhappy ". Moorcraft who visited the valley in 1835 writes, "Everywhere the people were in most abject condition, not one sixteenth of the cultivable land is under cultivation, and the inhabitants are starving. They were in a condition of extreme weakness. Villages were half deserted and those who lived there were the semblance of extreme sickness. Villages were filthy and swarming with beggars. The rural folk on the whole were half naked and miserably emaciated and presented a ghastly picture of poverty and starvation ". Such was the general condition of the state when Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1830. His death was a signal for the mutiny of Sikh Army which become uncontrollable, and plunge entire Punjab into confusion and chaos.

Dogra Period : 1846 1957

The two Anglo-Sikh wars led to the final extinction of Sikh soverignty in the Punjab and by virtue of the treaties of Lahore and Amritsar the British who had by now become undisputed masters of India, transferred and made over in perpetuity, the independent position to the Maharaja Gulab Singh and heirs male of his body, all the hilly and mountaneous country situated to the east of Indus, and west of Ravi river. In consideration of this transfer Maharaja Gulab Singh paid to the British government the sum of 75 lakhs of rupees. Maharaja Gulab Singh entered Srinagar on 9th November 1848 at 8 in the morning. The Dogra royal line traces its descent from the ancient Kshatriyas mentioned frequently in Mahabharata. The Dogra ruler claimed that they belong to the Surya Vanshi (sun born) race. Maharaja Gulab Singh was a man of great vigour, foresight and determination. He repressed opposition and crime with an iron hand and he was universaly feared and respected. He crushed gangs of organized plunderers, and murderers in the valley known as Galwans, and also broke the power of Bombas and Khokhas the inhabitants of Jhelum valley region below Varamulla, who brought havoc to every home in the valley by following a policy of arson and plunder. Large number of forts were built in their territory which were garrisoned with troops. It was because of his energetic measures that the conditions of the people improved and after many years some confidence was inspired in the permanece of administration. The people got a spell of peace and order, after centuries of lawlessness. The greatest service of the first Dogra ruler is the foundation he laid of the modern Jammu and Kashmir State. It was Gulab Singh who conquered one by one different places and regions of the state, Jammu,. Poonch, Ram Nagar, Basoli, Bhahderwah, Kishtwar, Bhimbar, Rajauri, Sikardu, Kharmang, Kiris, Khaplu, Sheghar, Astor Gilgit, Chitral, Yasin, Hunza, Nagar, and Punial. In the words of K. M. Panikar an area of more than eighty thousand sq. miles including part of Tibet, as well as part of Pamier, besides the genuinely kingdoms of Jammu and Kashmir came into Maharaja Gulab Singh's possession. This area had never been effectively united under one ruler and much of it with of course, the exception of the valley of Kashmir had never known any settled govt. " Writes P. N. Bamzai : " Mahraja Gulab Singh is the only Indian ruler to have carved out a state during the 19th century out of the wreckage of the great kingdom of Sikhs. Moreover he is the only Indian ruler to have extended the frontiers of India to their natural boundary ." Even Dr. Soft who is not very kind in his comments writes about him: "Gulab Singh was unquestionably a remarkable figure in the history of Northern India during the first half of the 19th Century. He was a distinguished soldier and diplomat and knew the state craft of his own days exceedingly well." The Maharaja died in 1857 after a rule of 11 years, during which period he laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. He was succeeded by Maharaja Ranbir Singh who ruled from 1857 to 1885. It was in his time that the rule of law commenced in the state. Almost all the laws, civil and criminal, which the British had introduced in India were with some modifications made applicable to the state. The various state departments were organised on the pattern of departments as these existed in British India. A slight attempt was also made to assess the amount of land revenue at a fixed amount.
In 1885 Maharaja Sir Pratap Singh ascended the throne and he ruled for a period of 40 years. It is in the time of this Maharaja that the real modernisation of the state took place and several progressive reforms were carried through. Sir Walter Lawrence carried the first assessment of land revenue system in the state on scientific lines. The two mountain roads-Jhelum valley road and Banihal Cart road were built linking the state with the rest of India. A scheme for drainage of the valley reclaiming waste-land and preventing floods by digging flood channels was put into operation. Construction of water reservior at Harwan and establishment of electric generating plant at Mohra was also undertaken during this period. Two colleges in the state besides large number of education institutions were also established by the order of the Maharaja. The administrative machinery was completely overhauled. There was development in the means of communication and telegraphs, telephones and post offices were opened in many places. The isolation of Kashmir from the rest of the country was now a thing of the past, and large number of people, mostly europeans began to visit the valley. The fame of the valley, its climate and beauty spread in all parts of the world and it can truly be said that an era of tourist traffic started in right earnest in the state. Many efforts were made by Englishmen to obtain the right of purchasing land here for building houses. This would have turned Kashmir into a British Colony. The Maharaja stoutly refused to entertain the proposal, and this actually led to the construction of House Boats. After the death of Maharaja Pratap Singh his nephew Maharaja Sir Hari Singh ascended the throne in 1925. He continued to govern the state till 1950. During this period, large number of Indians and also foreigners came to enjoy the bracing climate of the valley. Gulmarg before independence almost looked like an English town during summer. The same was the case with Nagin Lake. Maharaja Hari Singh modernised the state and carried out a large number of reforms. It was in his time that the popular elements began to be associated with the Goverment. The most important thing that had far reaching consequences in the future history of the state was the birth of political parties and the growth of political consciousness in the state during this period. But even more important was the liberation of the country from the British Yoke in 1947, that ended all the traces of foreign domination, absolutism and autocracy in our country. It was on 26th Jan. 1957 that the Kashmir Constiuent Assembly ended the hereditary rule of the Hindu monarchy in the state exacly after one hundred and ten years of its establishment. The liberation of India, facilitated the establishment of responsible government in Jammu and Kashmir State, but the liberisation also brought the division of our country on religious and communal consideration. This division led to disatrous consequences plunging northern India into a sort of bloody civil war. The Pakistan Government invaded the state, and encouraged the Tribal people and other titanic hordes of medieval barbarism to carry loot, plunder, death and destruction into the hearths and homes of innocent Kashmiris in general and among Hindus in particular. Pakistan wanted to grab Kashmir, even though its ruler in the terms of Independance Act, had acceded to India, and signed the instrument of Accession as required under the said Act. The main burden of Pakistan invasion had to be borne by the Hindus of the districts of Muzzafarbad, Baramulla, Poonch, Rajuari, Mirpur, Bhimber, Kotli, Skardu, Gilgit and Ladhak. Thousands of people became the victims and lost their lives for no fault of theirs, and property worth crores accumulated for decades was lost just within a weeks time.
This was the result of the mighty Congress Party with its host of gallant leaders bowing disgracefully before fanaticism, ' Two Nation Theory ', and its author Mr. Jinah.
The Congress leaders accepted the partition of India, but totally ignored or could not perhaps realise its disastrous consequences. In short, the Hindus here have paid the penalty rather heavily. Kashmir was attacked in 1965 and 1971 by Pakistan. In spite of these historical vicissitudes the popular government has been trying its level best to mitigate the suffering of the people, thanks to the generous financial assistance of the Central Government.
The importance of the state of Jammu and Kashmir should never be lost sight of, because the borders of our country here touch the boundaries of Pakistan and China - the two states which are hostile to India.

 
Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari

POSTED  BY :VIPUL KOUL

EDITED BY :ASHOK KOUL.