The
history of Kashmir (
Urdu:
کشمیر ) is intertwined with the history of the broader
Indian subcontinent and the surrounding regions, comprising the areas of
Central Asia,
South Asia and
East Asia. Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of
Jammu and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh),Pakastan occuped Kashmir and
Gilgit–Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered regions of
Aksai Chin and the
Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an
important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later in the ninth
century, Shaivism arose. Islamization in Kashmir took place during 13th
to 15th century and led to the eventual decline of the
Kashmir Shaivism
in Kashmir. However, the achievements of the previous civilizations
were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new
Islamic polity and culture which gave rise to
Kashmir Sufi Mysticism.
In 1339,
Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the
Shah Mir Dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the
Mughal Empire, who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan
Durrani Empire, which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the
Sikhs, under
Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the
First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the
British under the
Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of
Jammu,
Gulab Singh,
became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the
paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when
the former
princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
General view of Martand Sun Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan. Probable date of temple AD 490–555. Probable date of colonnade AD 693–729.
According to
folk etymology, the name "Kashmir" means "
desiccated land" (from the
Sanskrit:
Ka = water and
shimeera = desiccate). In the
Rajatarangini, a
history of Kashmir written by
Kalhana in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. According to
Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great
rishi or sage,
Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of
Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at
Baramulla (
Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked
Brahmans
to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing
physical condition of the country, we may see some ground for the story
which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and
tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or
collection of dwellings in the valley was called
Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with
Kaspapyros of
Hecataeus (
apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and
Kaspatyros of
Herodotus Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by
Ptolemy's
Kaspeiria.
Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.
According to the
Mahabharata, the
Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the
epic period with a
Republican system of government from the capital city of
Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava.,shortened to Rajapura, which has been identified with modern
Rajauri.
Later, the
Panchalas are stated to have established their sway. The name
Peer Panjal, which is a part of modern Kashmir, is a witness to this fact. Panjal is simply a distorted form of the
Sanskritic tribal term Panchala. The
Muslims prefixed the word
peer to it in memory of Siddha Faqir and the name thereafter is said to have changed into Peer Panjal. According to legend, Jammu was founded by Hindu King
Raja Jambu Lochan in the 14th century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the
Tawi River
where he saw a goat and a lion drinking water at the same place. The
king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name,
Jamboo. With the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became "Jammu".
Nilmata Purana (complied c. 500–600 CE)
contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic
source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of
inconsistency and unreliability.
Kalhana's
Rajatarangini
(River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed
by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from mythical
times to 12th century. It relies upon traditional sources like
Nilmata Purana, inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family.
Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational
and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th
centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as India's first
historian. During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to
Rajatarangini were written by
Jonaraja (1411–1463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with
Akbar's conquest of Kashmir in 1586 CE. The text was translated into
Persian by Muslim scholars such as
Nizam Uddin,
Farishta, and
Abul Fazl.
Baharistan-i-Shahi and Haidar Mailk's
Tarikh-i-Kashmir
(completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of
Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in
Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.
Earliest
Neolithic sites in the flood plains of
Kashmir valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at
Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and one
Megalithic
phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud
plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second
phase, which lasted till c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground
level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild
animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of
subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases. In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery. During the later
Vedic period, as kingdoms of the
Vedic tribes expanded, the
Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.
In 326 BCE,
Porus asked
Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against
Alexander the Great in the
Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants. During the reign of
Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the
Maurya Empire and
Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many
stupas, some shrines dedicated to
Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (
Srinagar) were built.
Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the
Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur. Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the
Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as
Ashvagosha,
Nagarjuna and
Vasumitra took part.
By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both
Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread
Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from
these countries started visiting Kashmir.
Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor
Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the
Chang'an monastery.
Hepthalites (White Huns) under
Toramana crossed over the
Hindukush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir. His son
Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of
North India. He was opposed by
Baladitya in
Magadha and eventually defeated by
Yasodharman in
Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of
Gandhara
where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their
shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.
After seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri
Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets,
philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and
Hindu religion. Among notable scholars of this period was
Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the
Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a
monistic Shaiva system called
Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by
Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism. Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in
Southern India.
In the eighth century,
Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers of Kashmir.Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of
this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor
as the king of Kashmir. His successor
Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated
Yashovarman of
Kanyakubja and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha,
Kamarupa,
Gauda, and
Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and
Gujarat and defeated
Arabs at
Sindh.After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.Utpala dynasty founded by
Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against
Gurjaras in
Punjab.
Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards
(Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil
administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were
defeated by Chakravarman. Queen Didda, who descended from the
Hindu Shahis of
Kabul on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century. After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to
Lohara dynasty. During the 11th century,
Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not siege the fortress at Lohkot.
Muslim rule: Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s), the Mughals (1580s–1750s) and the Afghans (1750s-1819)
Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date AD 400 to 500,
The oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights, and rise of feudal lords (
Damaras) during the unpopular rule of the
Lohara dynasty (1003–1320 CE) paved way for foreign invasions of Kashmir.Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a
Turkic–
Mongol chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir. Rinchana, a
Tibetan Buddhist refugee in Kashmir, established himself as the ruler after Zulju. Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister
Shah Mir,
probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries
outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a
majority, Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims. Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of
his dynasty in Kashmir.
In the 14th century,
Islam gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir. Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund
Rishi, combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses. The Sultans between 1354–1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of
Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title
But–Shikan for destroying idols. Sultan
Zain-ul-Abidin (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from
Central Asia and
Persia to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving,
papier-mâché , shawl and carpet weaving prospered. For a brief period in 1470s, states of
Jammu,
Poonch and
Rajauri
which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan.
However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as
ruler in 1472 CE. By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the
Hindu priests had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and
Persian
replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the
nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir
dynasty.
Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al-Din Shah II (ruled 1537–38).
Mughal general
Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in
Kashgar, invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor
Humayun. Persecution of
Shias,
Shafi'is, and
Sufis and instigation by
Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir. Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of Mughal king
Akbar
who visited the valley himself in 1589 CE. During successive Mughal
emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques, and palaces were constructed.
Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when
Mughal emperor
Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, influence of the Mughal Empire declined In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought
Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of
Muhammad, to the valley. The relic was housed in the
Hazratbal Shrine on the banks of
Dal Lake.
Nadir Shah's invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir In 1753, Abdul Khan Isk Aquasi, a general in
Ahmed Shah Abdali's army, invaded Kashmir and established rule of the
Durrani Empire of
Afghanistan.
Afghan rule in Kashmir was extremely cruel and oppressive, particularly
for the Hindus. Locals were extorted from, captured and forced into
slavery during this period. Dominance of Afghans declined after Ahmed
Shah Abdali's death in 1772, but they ruled Kashmir for another 47
years.
In 1819, the
Kashmir valley passed from the control of the
Durrani Empire of
Afghanistan, and four centuries of
Muslim rule under the
Mughals and the
Afghans, to the conquering armies of the
Sikhs under
Ranjit Singh of
Punjab. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers. However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive, protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws, which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter, closing down the
Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the
azaan, the public Muslim call to prayer.
Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of
whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the
exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some
contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside,
allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.
However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half
the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to
farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh
empire. During this time
Kashmiri shawls became known world wide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the
Raja
of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was
also captured by the Sikhs and afterwards, until 1846, became a
tributary to the Sikh power. Ranjit Deo's grandnephew,
Gulab Singh,
subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished
himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir
valley, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820.
With the help of his officer,
Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and
Baltistan to the east and north-east, respectively, of Jammu.
Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule)
Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the
Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the
territories of Kashmir "to the eastward of the river
Indus and westward of the river
Ravi"
[b] for 7.5 million rupees from the British (Artist: James Duffield Harding).
In 1845, the
First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the
battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir
Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (
i.e. West
Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (
rupees) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between
Beas and
Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for (
Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of
Indus and west of
Ravi" (
i.e. the
Vale of Kashmir). The
Treaty of Amritsar freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the
Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir. The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the
revolt of 1857 which challenged
British rule
in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed
English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri
troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded
them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir. Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son,
Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of
Hunza,
Gilgit and
Nagar to the kingdom
.
The
Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu
(as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was
"somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully
coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and
partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the
fringes of Empire.
It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east,
Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants
practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of
Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir
valley, the population was overwhelmingly
Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri
brahmins or
pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated
Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised
Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated,
Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly
Shi'a groups; and, to the west,
Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.
Ranbir Singh's grandson
Hari Singh,
who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning
monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent
and the subsequent
partition of the British
Indian Empire into the newly independent
Union of India and the
Dominion of Pakistan. An internal revolt began in the Poonch region against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja.
[70]
In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon demonstrations in favour of
Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent
people.
[71] The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October.
[72]
Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to
either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as
geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947,
Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim and 20% Hindu". To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a
standstill agreement
with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel,
communication, and similar services between the two. Such an agreement
was pending with India. In October 1947,
Pashtuns from Pakistan's
North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded
Kashmir,
along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities
against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in
looting and killing along the way. The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to
Mountbatten[c] for assistance, and the
Governor-General agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Once the Maharaja signed the
Instrument of Accession,
Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored
irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the
accession, regarding it provisional until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader
Sheikh Abdullah
endorsed the accession as ad-hoc which would be ultimately decided by
the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency
administration by the Maharaja.
The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession,
suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress
and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the
standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force
POSTED BY : VIPUL KOUL
EDITED BY : ASHOK KOUL
