"Arni Rang Gaum

"Arni Rang Gaum ....." is the most stunning one liner written in Kashmir poetry. Its capacity to imagery is unparalleled. One can think of Habba Khatoon’s Madan Varo Badan Zoltham” which can flood the sense with similar kind of imagery. But more of that later. Arnimal was born in Palhalan and married to a poet from Rainawari. Her husband Bhawani Das Kachroo was a more accomplished poet. But poetry is not only about accomplishments. In Arni’s case poetry rose from the heart, got welled up in the breast and out came the pathetic gems of Kashmiri literature. In all types of poetry, feelings get converted to thought and thought by conversion to word. In Arin’s case spoken word with feeling produced still effect and impact is heard more than two centuries after her death. Arni Rang Gom Shraavani hiyey Karyiye darshun divey. Shamosondran Paaman Laegis Aamataavae Kotah Gaejis Naama Paegam tas Kusniye Kar yiyey darshun diyej "All great literature”, wrote Albert Camus, “is written in the silence of the heart” . In all probability, above song was created in silence. In an autumn breeze looking at the faded leaves, in a clear blue sky. In that moment of solitude and silence above vatsun was composed. Poetry is not mostly about thought. It is about feeling cherished in silence. Poetry is rupture of emotion. Poetry does not convey the universal truth. It highlights particular condition. Devastated by the separation from her husband, Arnimal sought solace in poetry. Aware that her husband was accomplished poet, she created her own to woo him back. In 18th Century Kashmir amidst the tyranny of Afghans and in the midst of bountiful Kashmir nature, life was hard and painful in her parent’s home. She sought solace in nature or mixed nature to create poetic effect. Shamasondran Paaman Lagis. Amatavie Kotah Gaejis Arnimal does not give us philosophical teaching or inspired and complex religions sermons as in the case of Lal Ded. She highlights her condition with simplicity and charm. Her state is sad but creates powerful emotion to hide that sadness or creates poetry for solace. Kanda naabada aaradamtuy Phanda Karith tsolum kotuy Khanda Karinam Lookan thivey kar yivey darshan diyey. Arnimaal’s poetry is sort of given up poetry. It is a poetry of disillusion told with beauty and simplicity. In that simplicity lies Arnimal’s talent. She highlights her condition in simplest terms and in the process gives glimpse of 18th century Kashmiri women. But poetry is not only about accomplishments of 18th Century kashmiri women. Vuchhi Vesay Kahandi Bo Zaayas Baagani Aeyes Kahaanditam Doha Aki Mallmaaji Nagra Harshaayes Shaaharch Aesis Vastsis Gaam Sati Dohy Phheerit Maatine Anayaages Baagani Auyes Kahandi Taam Doha Aki Shreha Saan Maalyungayaayes Deka Baji Kaakani Dsitnam Paam Deka Reach Zeranuy Kona Moyaagyes Baagam Aayes Kahandi Taam. In the above vatsun. Arnimal talks of embarrassment and taunts she had to undergo in her parent’s home. But disappointment is hidden under a cloak of poetic valour. She tells the story with degree of elan and thereby highlighting the tragic. It is not healthy to give translated version of her songs. As Voltarie has said don’t think you have grasped the poetry by reading translation. Separated from her husband after only seven days after the marriage, Arnimal mixes passion for her estranged husband with a poetic imagery Raatas Osum Lava Zan Laerith Subahs Pravi Ketha Traerith Gom. Babri Tsaman Ashi Saganavith Aeshimot Kava Pashinaavitm Gom. Arnimal and Habba Khaaton are twin sisters of Kashmir Vatsun. They seem to have smimilar sort of image and feeling. They mirror each other in every respect. Both or they do not impose their poetry. Lal Ded is special because of power, punch she generates in her vaakhs. Arnimal and Habakhaaton are product of nature. They seldom rise above it as in the case of Lal Ded. In fact both Arnimal and Haba Khaatun are overwhelmed by nature. But rise at appropriate time in order not to drown. Both of them will float as long as there are hills and mountains in Kashmir. Or in the words of Arnimaal upto Sangar Maalan. Sulvothav Sungarmaalan. Lala Chhararon Kohan to Baalan. Through this piece is about Arnimal’s Poetry one cannot resist the doubts raised by Muslim scholars about her existence. Such notions need to be waived with a degree of nonchalance. Suffice it to say her husband was a historical figure as a courtier in Afghan court. Besides who could have composed Arnimal’s songs but by Arnimals herself ? Who could have created her anguished feeling? Who could have composed her sadness in poetic form? More importantly who could have faked her sincerity? It is not difficult to see that those who accept Lal Ded as Lalla Arifa now present that there was no Arnimal. Shakespeare’s what is in a name” is not relevant in Kashmir context. It is everything in Kashmir. We end with what Keats has said which applies perfectly to Arnimal. “ Our Sweetest Songs are the saddest one”.

*Bilhan Kaul is a freelance writer and hasbeen a regular contributer in various magazines and newspapers. The writer has written extensively on forced conversion and believes it to be the root cause of the conflict in Kashmir. A Central Government Employee presently lives in Janipur, Jammu (India).

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Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor

Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor
(1885-1952)

by Braj B. Kachru
Mahjoor has a place of honor among the poets of Kashmir. He is especially noted for two things. First, he introduced a new style into Kashmiri poetry. Second, he introduced a new thought into Kashmiri poetry. 
Mahjoor wrote poems of freedom and progress in Kashmiri. These songs awakened the sleeping Kashmiris. He came with a new voice and a new (literary) form. 
Mahjoor was a poet of love and communal harmony. In his earlier days, he used to write only love poetry, but (later) he also wrote forceful poems about freedom. 
Mahjoor's real name was Ghulam Ahmad. But as a poet, he adopted the pen name 'Mahjoor'. He was born in eighteen hundred and eighty-five in Metragam. He has written poetry in Persian and Urdu as well. 
Mahjoor worked as a patwa:ri: (pathva:r') in Kashmir. Along with his official duties, he used to write poetry in Kashmiri. Mahjoor had his first Kashmiri poem published in 1918. After this, he composed poetry only in Kashmiri. His songs became very popular. He wrote on such topics as love, communal harmony, and social reform, and also wrote on the plight of the Kashmiris. He wrote about youth, the flowers of Nishat Garden, a peasant girl, a gardener, the golden oriole, and a Free Kashmir. At that time, such songs were unknown in Kashmiri poetry. It was Mahjoor who gave these to us. 
Mahjoor was sixty-seven years old when he passed away in 1952. The death of Mahjoor was a great loss to both the Kashmiri language and (Kashmiri) poetry. But, Mahjoor's songs are still on the lips of every Kashmiri. Through these songs, his name will live forever. 

<<< Click here for Real Audio clips >>>

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Come, O Gardener

by Gulam Ahmad Mehjoor

Come, O Gardener!
Come to create the glory of a new spring.
A spring in which
the gul will bloom,
the bulbul will sing.

The garden is desolate;
the dew is mourning.
And the gul in torn robes
looks perplexed.

Come, O Gardener!
To rekindle the gul
To rejuvenate the bulbul.

Come, O Gardener!
Weed out the nettle from the flower-beds
And look at row after row of hyacinth,
Come and make a smiling garden.

Who can free a captive bird mourning in his cage?
You must bring your own freedom, O, Gardner!

Wake up, O Gardener, to realize that
power and riches.
Comfort and kingship,
all these are at your feet
only after you realize yourself;
O Gardener!

Come, O Gardener!
to awaken your garden,
to say goodbye to the strains of gul,
to say goodbye to the strains of bulbul;
And--
bring about an earthquake,
bring about a storm,
bring about a rumbling thunder,
bring about a tornado.

Yagneopavit

In the past, in Bharat Varsha (India), the 'yagneopavit' (thread ceremony) was performed by the people belonging to the three castes - Brahmins, i.e. teachers, professors, ministers and the learned people; Kshatriyas, i.e. people of martial class and rulers; and Vaishyas, i.e. people dealing with agriculture and commerce -  for their children.

A typical Yagneopavit ceremony

It involved performance of a great yagna, in which all the Degas were invited by suitable incantations to bless the children during the course of their initiation to the most sacred mantra - Gayatri mantra - by the Kula Guru (family priest). The Gayatri is symbolized by the three folds of the sacred thread of a fixed length, sanctified by proper incantation, which is worn by the boy on his initiation.  

Upanayana or Yugnopavit

Yugnopavitam paramum pavitram

prajapateyrth sahjam purastat

ayusham agrim pratimoincha shuibrem

yugnopavitam balam astu tejah

By Pushkarnath Nehru

1. What is Upanayana?

Upanayana is one of the most important SAMASKARAS  (symbolic events) in the life of the child.

In the ancient times a child was initiated into the pursuit of secular knowledge (like astronomy, mathematics, metaphysics, logic, medicine and other vedic literature) as well as into the realm of spiritual development by putting him on the task of learning and practicing such disciplines by way of his parents handing him over to a Guru for the purpose of learning and practicing them under his guidance. But eventually this institution became out of vogue due to the socio-economic changes. The Upanayan ceremony is now restricted to and revolves around the investiture of the sacred thread or the ‘yugnapavit’ and the teaching of Gayatri Mantra to the child.

Cultural Nostalgia
Maekhal (Yugnopavit) around 1940s.

By virtue of the performance of the Upanayana ceremony, which connotes the taking of the charge of the student by the teacher, the student is supposed to have second birth (Dvija) in the world of knowledge through education. This is done after staging symbolically all the previous events (Samaskaras) right from his or her birth. In the Vedic birth of the student, symbolised by wearing the “girdle” and the sacred thread, Savitri becomes the mother and Guru the father.

2. What is Yugnopavit (sacred thread) ceremony?

This initiation of a student by the teacher, entailed various functions, such as selection of Guru, auspicious time, preparation, wearing of garments, the girdle, the sacred thread (“Yugnopavit”), presenting of deer skin, the staff, Savitri Mantra, sacred fire (agnihotra) and alms etc. Later on when the conception of Upanayana underwent a change in the course of time, the mere initiation of the child by the teacher became a sacred lore. The original idea of initiation for education got overshadowed by the mystic significance of Upanayana which lead to the idea of second birth (dvija) through the Gayatri Mantra. The initiation, which marked the taking over of the charge of the student by the Guru, revolved around the establishment of connection between the student and Savitri (through the Gayatri Mantra) performed by the Guru and his teaching of this mantra.

The Upanayana in the present form is the investiture of the sacred thread (“Yugnopavit”) on the child which involves the initiation and symbolically staging all the said Samaskaras. The most important part of this ceremony is the wearing of the sacred thread and the accompaniment of the recitation and teaching of the Gayatri (Savitri) Mantra which is one prayer that is the crux of the whole vedic wisdom.

The wearer of this thread is supposed to be constantly reminded of his commitment to the secular and spiritual goals which he has set upon himself on this solemn occasion. That this life may not pass away just in unconscious striving but become a means of the expansion of our ‘being’; That it may provide a view of one’s self and the world without being in conflict with the action that comes by ; That life, even at its worst, may still provide us a source of sharing the joyousness of our existence; This is the greatest art of life, which comes, not through wanton experimentation, but through prayer and humility alone and through that the divine grace.

Abiding by the secular obligations towards his Guru, his family and the society are some of the definitive prescriptions that cannot be separated from his spiritual goals. Firstly the sacred thread has three folds which represents the trinity of existence symbolizing the three worlds; Earth, Space and the Heaven or Brahma (the unfolding of the world and this life), Vishnu (the sustenance) and Mahesh (the re-absorption). The central knot of the sacred thread and tying together of the three strands, represents Parambrahma (the supreme expansion of consciousness) into which all the three ‘tattvas’ (aspects of Godhead) such as Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh merge. This knot is known as ‘Brahmagranthi’. The three cords remind the wearer that he has to pay the three debts he owes to the ancient seers (rishis), the ancestors (pitras) and the Devatas and that his consciousness has to expand into all the three worlds. The threads are doubled at the time of marriage signifying the additional sacramental obligations towards his consort.

3. Gayatri Mantra (also called Savitri)

The focal point of the whole Upanayana ceremony is the recitation of the Gayatri Mantra and teaching its essence to the initiated. The mantra is considered to be the most sacred and according to Manu ‘there is nothing more exalted than the Gayatri’.

Om tat savitur varenyam

bhargo devasya dhimahi

dhiyo yo nah pracodayat

This original ‘Gayatri Mantra’, which is also known as ‘Savitri’, is a Rigvedic hymn (RV III, 62-10) which usually is preceded by the recitation of ‘Om Bhur, Bhuvah Svah’ which upon translation connotes :

Om bhur bhuvah svah

tat savitur varenyam

“That splendid magnificence of Savitre, the Cosmic Sun, permeating the three worlds, the Earth, the Space and the Heavens is assuredly Savitri; the inspirer, life giver, the stimulative force"

Bhargo devasya Dhimahi

“May we meditate on the life giving divinity, Savitri assuredly is God, and therefore I meditate on his splendor”.

dhiyo Yyonha prochudayat

“May He himself illumine our intelligence. May He himself breath it into us”.

The Gayatri Mantra derives its name from the metre in which it is written, the Gayatri being a Vedic poetic metre of 24 syllables of which, as per tradition, is authored by the sage Vishvamitra. The mantra consists of three sections (PADS) having eight syllables each and have to be recited in a particular sequence. Therefore the Gayatri Mantra is not a magic formula nor is it merely a logical sentence. It connects in a very special way the objective and subjective aspects of reality. It is neither a mere sound nor sheer magic. Words have not only sound but also meaning which is not apparent to all those who simply hear the sound. Such living words have a power that transcends the mental plane. To acquire this energy of the word one has to grasp not only its meaning but also its message, or its vibrations, as they are sometimes called in order. Therefore the phonetic quality of the mantra demands that it be recited in a particular way. Faith, understanding and physical utterance as well as physical continuity (since the mantra is supposed to be handed down by a master) are the essential requisites. Every word links up with the source of all words. The ultimate character of the word (Shabada Brahma) is a fundamental concept in spirituality.

4. Abhid (the alms)

The alms giving (Abhid) is now a symbolic act reminiscent of ancient institution of obtaining voluntary contributions made for the sustenance of the Guru’s Ashram in which the initiated students used to study. Presently during the Yugnopavit ceremony the act of alms giving is symbolically staged and is known as Abhid. This has now taken the complexion of “Dakshina” for the presiding Guru.

5. Relevance of Yugnopavit in the present times

The Yugnopavit ceremony used to be one of the most exalted functions in the life of a Brahmin, particularly in respect of the Kashmiri Brahmins. But due to major changes in the social and economic factors its importance in the course of time has significantly dwindled. In recent times it has lost its vitality and sublimity. It has unfortunately now been reduced to a social “Tamasha” without any attempt by us to restore its former sanctity. This sacrament used to be one of the most important instruments for inculcating and imparting discipline, values of life and the principles of right conduct.

Now, in the aftermath of our exodus from Kashmir it is doubly important to try and restore the intrinsic sanctity and usefulness of this samaskara so that we are able to give a worthy gift unto the young. Whereas modern education with its scientific spirit and vocational training is important for our children, but at the same time cultivation of matrices of right conduct, overall personality development with humane values of life so as to develop a vibrant ethos are the very essential credentials that would enable us to face the challenges of the present world. At present our children are facing a cultural cul-de-sac which suggests a drifting and a meaningless existence.

A sense of direction is needed more than ever before. The infusion of the spirit behind the “Yugnopavit” ceremony which also aims to promote compassion, love, benevolence, non-violence, fraternity, self-discipline and finer human relationship etc. in addition to the urge to meditate on the resurgence of the Supreme Consciousness can act as one of the most important instruments for achieving this goal.

The intrinsic message of the Gayatri Mantra engulfs a wide gamut of ideals such as what the Isha Upanishad says:-

Yastu sarvani bhutanyatmanayay vamu pashyeti

sarva bhuteshu ch atmanam tato na vijugupsate

yasiman sarvani bhutanyatmyvabhdi janatah

tatra ko moha kah shokah eikatva manupashytaha

“He who sees all creatures in himself, himself in all creatures, does not show abhorrence to any one; knowing all beings to be ones own-self and seeing the unity of man-kind, how can there be for him delusions, sufferings and sorrows”.

	Yagneopavit: Additional Comments The upanayana ceremony was conducted for both sexes in ancient India. Naturally there are similar ceremonies in other countries and cultures. The word for Christians is CONFIRMATION. This is one of the 'sacraments'. The sacrament is a deformed version of SAMASKARA. The jews tie a thread of several strands, others tie on their waist, etc. I saw a video of an upanayana ceremony conducted in Andhra by Swamini Sharadapriyananda for her students. She is trying to revive the ceremony for girls. Indeed all her female disciples get the holy thread. Gayetri mantra is found in Soorya Upanishad. Swamini Sharada loves teaching tht text. It is indeed very powerful. It is intersting to note that She has deidcated her life to serving the villagers of a remote area in Andhra where, in addition to her vedanta mission, she teaches villagers how to farm and how to interact with the beaurocrats of the state Govt. She used to be a lawyer in Hyderabad. In any case I believe we will be seeing more and more cultured hindus allow their female children to be initiated as well. It is a matter of balancing 'what is right' with 'family/society pressures'. Hari Om ! Ravi Kaw Yagnopavit is symbolic of the initiation of a householder into performing his threefold duties to the household, to his devas, and to his pitras - hence the three strands with brahmagandh or divine knot and three ways of wearing it (over the right shoulder, over the left shoulder, and round the neck only) as a necessary ritual tool when performing these three duties. On his marriage a householder gets three more strands on behalf of his wife. Its use and significance is limited to ritualistic practices only that is why a sanyasi does not wear it and under very special circumstances the un-initiated is temporarily invested with it to perform certain rites only. Since males are usually called upon to perform rites or ritualistic practices as active participants, they alone are invested with the sacred thread. This does not, however, mean that women are barred from active participation in religious or ritualistic practices, they are only exempted for so many important reasons. Wearing or otherwise of yagnopavit has nothing to do with the incantation of Gayatri Mantra or for that matter with any other spiritual practice. Had it been so we wouldn't have such spiritual luminaries as Gargi, Maitri, Savitri, Lala-ded, Ropa-bhawani, or a later-day sadhvi like Mathra-devi. Wearing the sacred thread did not make a householder in any way superior or better than his womenfolk; however, as a caste mark it gave him distinction among other men. That women without wearing the Yonya/ janayu have an active and important part in ritualistic practices, is understood from the fact that a Maikhla ceremony among KPs cannot be thought of without devichi-tabich, diviti-gool, vaari-dan, maasa-abhid etc. etc. The practice of initiating into wearing a girdle by both boys and girls is not exclusive to Parsis only. We have perhaps forgotten that 'aet-pun' was worn by both the sexes among KPs. A black cord of several strands is even now worn as a girdle by small children in many communities, including some adivasis, at an initiation ceremony. Regards, Prof. B. L. Fotedar  SOURCES ;GIVEN POSTED BY ; VIPUL KOUL

Kashmiri Rituals

Kashmiri Rituals

The generalizations and conceptual frames of reference adopted by western scholars, which still form the broad basis of explanation of the historical past of Kashmir and the history of its people, deserve to be abandoned now. The Burzahom civilization has revealed a continuity in the past of Kashmir, which dates back to the later stone-age cultures. That the early man of the Aryan stock, whose descendants live in Haryana now, should have been found to have lived in the later stone-age or Neolithic settlements at Burzahom and other places in Kashmir, links the history of Kashmir to the proto-Vedic period of Aryan civilization and refutes the traditional concept of Aryan race movement across Kashmir into northern India. Perhaps, Kashmir was never a theater for the Aryan immigration the way it is believed to have occurred by Grierson and the other English scholars of Kashmir History.

The myth about migratory character of the inhabitants of Kashmir, in ancient times or the medieval times must be discarded. The arrival of Sanskrit Aryans from India into Kashmir, in the beginning of the Neelmat period, which commenced with the induction of the calcolithic tools or metals into Kashmir, most probably from the surrounding Sind Valley civilization, indicates a cultural change, which was not dictated by any race movement. The people living in Kashmir, from the time of the Neolithic age of Burzahom, have been of a single racial stock. The Nagas and Pisachas were also people of the proto-Aryan racial origin, and formed the local cultural denominations after Sanskrit Aryans arrived in Kashmir. There is hardly any anthropological evidence to prove that ancient people of Kashmir were racially of a different stock than the people inhabiting the Burzahom settlements. There is also little evidence to prove that early people of Kashmir, lived through the millennia, following the Burzahom civilization, in remoter regions of northern Kashmir and Baltistan, where western scholars believe the Pisachas, particularly, toak refuge after Sanskrit Aryans extended their hold over the Kashmir Valley.
The Austroloid and the proto-Austroloid race movements across India had a marginal impact on Kashmir. No ethnographic evidence is available to show any proto-Austroloid elements in the people of Kashmir. The only other race movement, which could have affected the racial content of the people of Kashmir in ancient times, is that of the Alpanoids, who are believed to have descended from the European Steppes and moved south-east across India. Alpanoids, also known as western Brachycephalics, did not leave any trace on the people of Kashmir. Brachycephalics are broader- heads, measured in accordance with specific anthropometric methods in accordance with which various cephalic or cranial indexes are calculated. Kashmiri people are predominantly docile-cephalic, with specific cranial indexes, indicating longer heads and nasal indexes, similar to that of the Aryan people.
The Austroloid, proto-Austroloid and Alpanoid race remnants, which lingered on in remote regions, settling into endocrine social groups in India, and very often recognized as the aborigine tribes of India have a specific racial content and are not related to the early people of Kashmir. There were no aborigine people in Kashmir, and Nagas and Pisachas have no aboriginal history.
The ritual culture of the people of Kashmir grew from its Burzahom past and is, therefore, formed of several sediments; the basic sediments have their origin in the ritual structure of the Burzahom people and the people of Kashmir who lived through the Neelmat period. The Vedic Grah-Sutras and Kalpa- Sutras were adopted for the Battas of Kashmir, or the Kashmiri Pandits, by Laugaksha Muni, a great sage, sometime in the first millennium B.C. Before the adaptation of Sanskrit scriptures, Kashmiri Battas had already a highly evolved and intricate ritual structure, which symbolised their proto-Aryan origin. A part of the pre-Laugaksha ritual was integrated into the Laugaksha adaptation. The rest lingered on and survived and in due course of time became a part of the religious culture of the Battas. These rituals are still extant, and preserved and practised by the Kashmiri Pandits even now. A vast number of rituals followed by Kashmiri Pandits, in their birth, death and marriage rituals have a phenomenal identity and theological content. Besides there are numerous rituals, traditions and festivals of proto-Vedic origin which the Kashmiri Pandits follow.
Perhaps, the most interesting development of the Neelmat period was the evolution of Shakht religious system with its deep theological basis. Shakht ultimately formed the substructure of the Bhawani worship and Tantric Buddhism as well as Shaivism in Kashmir.
Rituals like Gada-Batta, Kaw Punim, Khachi Mavas, Herath, etc. have an ancient past and are symbolic of a theological philosophy, which predates the advent of the Sanskrit Aryans into Kashmir. These rituals have a proto-Aryan origin and should not be aseribed to any aboriginity in the ancient past of Kashmir. They have rich theulogical backglound and cannot be explained by simplisitic explanations, based upon nineteenth century methodologies of history.
Mythology is a part of the cultural tradition of all people, and Hindu mythology is also a part of its cultural tradition. Hindu rituals cannot be explained by rationalisation and conjecture. Gada Batta is a ritual form which must be traced to the Butzahom period of Kashmir history and has a long theological tradition. Gada-Batta is a ritual associated with the family and the clan organisation of the early Hindus of Kashmir and is not in any way connected to superstition or the last long meal left for the aged who were unable to migrate in winter as suggested in an article published in the Hindi Section of the 'Koshur Samachar' (Shivratri Special: March 1994).
- by Dr. Santosh Kaul  

A Typical Kashmiri Pandit Marriage

Kashmiris first match the teknis (horoscopes) of the prospective bride and groom. Besides this, the other factors which are taken into consideration while selecting a match are the background, status and moral character of the family of the prospective match and their close relatives. All this and more is taken into consideration before the alliance is finalised.  The wedding date is proposed by the bride's parents. Once the groom's parents also give their consent, the purohit (priest) fixes the wedding date.
 

A Typical Kashmiri Pandit Marriage

Kashmiris first match the teknis (horoscopes) of the prospective bride and groom. Besides this, the other factors which are taken into consideration while selecting a match are the background, status and moral character of the family of the prospective match and their close relatives. All this and more is taken into consideration before the alliance is finalised.  The wedding date is proposed by the bride's parents. Once the groom's parents also give their consent, the purohit (priest) fixes the wedding date. The wedding can take place in the morning or in the night. An auspicious time is fixed by the purohit.

Click here for a typical Marriage in Pictures

[ Pre-Wedding Rituals ]

[ The Wedding Rituals ]

[ Post-Wedding Rituals ]

Pre-wedding Rituals
Formal Engagement or Kasamdry
Once the two families agree to the alliance, a formal commitment ceremony takes place in the form of kasamdry. The family purohits fix the date of the engagement ceremony as per the Kashmiri calendar. The ceremony takes place in front of an idol. The elderly persons of both sides meet in a temple and exchange flowers as a sign of celebration of the formalisation of the alliance. The girls' family lays out a meal comprising of traditional Kashmiri food. Separately in the houses of the bride and the groom, the eldest aunt (of the boy and the girl) prepares var (a special rice pudding) which is distributed among the neighbour and relatives. The girl's family sends cash, fruits, dry fruits and a pot containing nabad (misri, sugar lumps) to the boy's house. This is what happened in olden days. Nowadays, the boy and the girl meet in a temple or at boy's house and exhange golden rings.
Livun
An auspicious day is chosen for the livun, the traditional cleansing of the house before a wedding. The bride's family and the boy's family do not necessarily do the livun on the same day. On this day, the floors of the Kashmiri mud houses are cleaned and treated with a mixture of mud and water. All the married female members of the family attend the ceremony. The bua or pof (father's sister) of the boy and that of the girl prepare var which has to be distributed to all the neighbours and relatives. They are given cash by the respective parents of the bride and the groom as a token of love. This is also the day when the waza (family cook) arrives and puts together a mud-and-brick oven called wuri in the backyard of the house. This is where the traditional meals will be cooked for the wedding ceremonies. The consumption of meat is traditionally forbidden in Kashmiri weddings. This is how it used to happen in olden days when most of the Kashmiri houses were mud houses that have been replaced with concrete ones these days.
Wanvun:  During every evening following livun, up to the marriage ceremony, a sangeet (music) session is held in both the bride's and the groom's houses where the participants include neighbours and relatives. The guests are served a salted pink tea (called noon or sheer chai) at the end of such singing sessions. 
Maenziraat
The maenzraat ceremony takes place a week prior to the wedding. It begins with krool khaarun, a ceremony which involves decorating the door of the houses of the prospective bride and the groom by their respective aunts (father's sister). In the evening, the bride-to-be follows an elaborate bathing ritual, during which her feet are washed by her maternal aunt. After the bath, her eldest aunt decorates her hands and feet with maenz (henna). Maenz is also distributed among the relatives and neighbours. The women invited for this occasion are served a delicious Kashmiri meal prepared by the waza. Dinner over, all participate in a lively wanvun or music session. In the groom's house, a little mehendi is applied on his hands as it is a symbol of auspiciousness.
Thread Ceremony (yagneopavit)
If the Janayu or thread ceremony has not been performed earlier for the groom, then it is conducted a few days before the wedding. If the ceremony is conducted post-adolescence he wears a thread of 6 strands as opposed to 3 worn if the ceremony was performed in his younger days.
Divagone
The divagone is a ceremony that marks the transition of the bride and the groom from brahmacharya ashram to grihastha ashram. The bride and the groom worship God Shiva and Goddess Parvati. The ceremony is observed separately by the girl's family and the boy's family in their respective homes. Before participating in the rituals, the relatives of the bride and the groom observe a fast. The purohit conducts the ceremony in front of a sacred fire. The ornaments and utensils that will be given to the bride by her family are also placed in front of the fire. An essential part of the rituals is the kanishran. This involves bathing the boy /girl with a mixture of water, rice, milk and curd. Flowers are also showered over the boy/girl. They change into a new set of traditional attire following the kanishran. The parents of the bride give her jewellery, clothes, household items, etc. An essential item of the jewellery is the dejaharu (click here), an ear ornament that has gold tassels strung on a sacred thread that passes through the middle ear cartilage. These holes are pierced in the ears of all Kashmiri girls when they are 2 or 3 years of age. The significance of wearing the dejaharu is that the bride is now ready for matrimony.
Food served: The women present among the relatives and neighbours are invited for dinner which is served in traditional kiln-baked pots called tabche. The food prepared by the waza consists of the following (click here for Kashmiri recipes): 
Dumaalu: This is a delicious preparation made from potatoes cooked in spices. 
Nadrooyakhni: This dish consists of the lotus plant cut across its width into pieces and cooked in milk and curd. 
Chock wangun: This dish comprises brinjals cooked with spices to give a delicious bitter-sweet taste. 
Vyath chaman: This dish consists of paneer (cottage cheese) cut into large pieces and cooked with spices. 
Nich chaman: This dish also consists of paneer cut into small pieces but cooked in turmeric and curd to give a yellow colour. 
Nadroo hakh: This dish contains a lotus stem cut in a particular diagonal shape along with Kashmiri saag (collard-greens). 
Mujchatni: This dish consists of white radish, grated and mixed with green chillies and curd. 
Entertaining guests: The ladies invited for the occasion indulge in wanvun (music session) throughout the night. In the more affluent families, traditional singing groups (called bachkots) are invited to entertain the guests. In the groups, the main dancer is called bacha and the musicians accompanying him comprise the sarangi player, the santoor player, the rabab player, the tumbaknari player, the harmonium player and the natoo player besides the lead singer. 
The boy's divagone: The groom is also given a kanishran. His mama (maternal uncle) presents him with a new set of clothing which consists of the following:
1. A pheran with tight, long sleeves, having a triangular neckline called taninaal, the upper lapel of which is tied at the left shoulder with a piping called dov and 
2. A waistband made of ruffle / pashmina with the ends embroidered with a golden thread and zarbaf called louing.
Duribat: On the same day, the maternal relatives of both the bride and the groom are invited for lunch at their respective houses. They are served first with milk, followed by kahwa. They are then served a traditional vegetarian lunch, consisting of dumaalo, nadroo yakhni, chock wangun, vyath chaman, nich chaman, nadroo hakh and mujchatni. 
Presents: Traditionally , the maternal relatives have to bring presents for the bride's or the groom's parents in case of duribat at the groom's residence. The presents include clothes for either the bride or the groom from their maternal grandparents. The immediate relatives like aunts of the bride or the groom, as the case may be, are presented with the traditional headgear, namely, the tarang. 
The Wedding Rituals
The bride's clothes
The traditional wedding attire is the pheran. The groom wears a tweed pheran with a sword in his waistband and jootis in his feet. His headgear is a turban (gordastar) to which a peacock feather has been tied with a golden thread. The bride's pheran is usually made of raffle, with ari or hook embroidery at the neck, cuff and edges. Over the kalpush, a long piece of starched and ironed snow-white cloth, about three centimeters in width and two to two-and-a-half metres long, is wrapped at the level of the forehead in three to four layers. A white scarf (called zoojh) is wrapped over the kalpush and it covers 50 per cent of the head from behind. This scarf is left hanging on the back of the head over the braid till it reaches just below the shoulders. It is made of fine cotton or silk on two sides and consists of a silk or cotton net in the middle. The edges are elegantly embroidered with golden and silk threads. A snow-white glazed paper is wrapped over this headgear and stitched from behind. Over the glazed paper, a white tranparent sheet of slolite paper, of the same width as that of the inner glazed layer, is placed and stitched on the sides near the back towards the braids. Over this slolite paper is placed another piece of starched muslin cloth (called pooch) which covers 60 per cent of the headgear from behind leaving 40 per cent of the front exposed. This cloth is left loose from behind reaching up to the knee joint or even lower, where the free end is appropriately bifurcated and curled separately. Two all-pins with black and golden heads are fitted into the headgear. (The entire head attire is called tarang.) A belt about two metres along and one-and-a-half metres wide (called haligandun), with its loose ends embroidered, is tied to the waist of the bride. 
Ceremony at the groom's house
The groom's paternal uncle helps him to tie the gordastar (turban).  While the groom's turban is being tied, a plate of rice containing some money (zung) is touched to his right shoulder.  Before marriage procession leaves for the bride's house, the groom must stand on a vyoog (rangoli, a decorative pattern made of rice flour and colours). He is given nabad to eat, a conch shell is sounded to announce his departure, and two rice pots containing some money are given away as alms to the poor as a gesture of goodwill. The groom and his party (baraat) leave for the bride's house by car.
Reception Ceremony
On arrival of the marriage procession relatives of the bride greet the procession warmly and is announced by blowing a conch shell. The fathers of the bride and the groom exchange jaiphal or nutmeg symbolising the solemnisation of the relationship with a promise of a life-long friendship. The bride's maternal uncle has to carry her out to the place where vyoog has been prepared and where the groom is made to stand. The eldest female member of the family or the bride's mother performs puja with lamps made of wheat flour and feeds nabad to the bride and the groom and kisses them on the forehead. Two rice pots are given away to the poor. The couple is led by the family purohit to the door. He performs a small ceremony here called dwar pooja before leading them to the lagan mandap.
Food served: The relatives and friends of the groom are served kahwa followed by a vegetarian meal served in earthen kiln-baked pots (called tabhe) As many as 21-25 dishes are prepared for the guests. These dishes include, in addition to the seven basic vegetarian preparations mentioned earlier, delicacies like kangach, which is a rare and expensive dish; marchwangan pokore; madur pulao (a sweet rice prepared on special occasions); and shufta, which is made from paneer, fried with nuts and sweetened with sugar. 
The wedding ceremony (Lagan)
The purohit performs the rituals in front of a sacred fire. For the first time the groom and the bride see each other through the images formed in the mirror. This is a custom which is still prevailing. After the groom and the bride see each other they are made to hold hands of each other in a firm grip not to get loosened with the passage of time. The groom holds the left hand of the bride with his right hand and same is being done by the bride. Their hands are covered with a cloth. This in Kashmiri is called Athwas. According to Kashmiri folklore, the first to be able to pull out the engagement ring of the other will be the one to play a dominating role in the relationship. A mananmal, golden thread, is tied to their foreheads. The left foot of the bride and groom are placed on a kajwat or grinding stone. The first phera or round around the sacred fire is made by stepping on seven one rupee coins, putting always her right foot forward and at the end of the walk is being received by the groom's father. There are a total of seven pheras. The wedding ceremony is followed by a vegetarian dinner with rice. The bride and groom are made to eat from the same plate.
Posh Puza
At the end of the ritual of marriage, saptapadi etc. the bride and the groom are made to sit in a comfortable posture. A red cloth is placed on their heads, and then all the people around offer them flowers (posh) in accompaniment of Veda mantras. This is called worshipping the couple with flowers. The rationale behind this custom is that the couple is considered to be Shiva and Parvati and the two are duly worshipped. First there are mantras for the bride and the groom separately followed by those meant for the two jointly. We are of the view that marriage is a spiritual union between a boy and a girl and they have to live this life of Artha (wealth) and Kama (desires) with due regard to Dharma (righteousness) and aspire for Moksha (emancipation). The four together are called Purusharthas. That is why the newly-weds are treated as Shiva and Parvati and worshipped as such at the time of the Posh Puza.
Excerpts: "The Festivals of the Kashmiri Pandits" by T. N. Dhar, 'Kundan'

Posh Puza: Blessing the couple with flowers The newly-weds must stand on the vyoog while the eldest female member of the bride's family offers them nabad thrice and kisses them on the forehead. As the bride leaves her parent's house, she throws a fistful of raw rice over her shoulder in the direction of that house. This symbolises that prosperity may continue to remain in the home the bride leaves. The bride carries some more rice in her other hand which is scattered at the doorstep of her new home. This symbolises that she brings prosperity to her new home. Her relatives and friends bid her good-bye as she sets off for her new home.
Welcoming the newly-weds
In a playful moment, the groom's eldest aunt refuses the newly-weds entry into their home until she is given some cash or jewellery. The couple must stand on a specially created vyoog and have nabad, offered by the groom's eldest aunt or mother. She kisses them on the forehead.  The mananmal tied on the forehead of the couple are exchanged. The aunt leads them to the kitchen where they must sit on the mud stove. The waza serves them food and the aunt feeds them. 
After the meal, the bride is now made to change into a new sari and jewellery given by her in-laws. Ataharu, which consists of several strands of gold/ silver tassels are strung below the dejaharu which she is already wearing, signifying that she is now a married lady.
Post-wedding Rituals
Satraat
The bride goes to visit her parents in the evening. Her husband and a couple of children, probably those of her sister-in-law, accompany her. The parents of the bride give the bride a set of new clothes and some salt and cash. The groom is also presented with new clothes including a dusa (six yard pashmina shawl). The bride and the groom change into new clothes before returning to the groom's house.
Phirlath
This is the ceremony that takes place when the couple visit the bride's parents for the second time. Once again, they are given new clothes to mark the occasion.
Roth Khabar
On a Saturday or Tuesday after the wedding, the bride's parents send a roth or a traditional, long freshly baked cake (bread decorated with nuts), to their son-in-law's family. Then she is given salt as shagun.
Gar Atchun
This is equivalent to the modern-day reception held at the girl's place. The bride's brother and sister come to the marital home and escort the bride back to her parent's home for one day. This ritual is known as the Gar Atchun. The bride wears all the jewellery given to her by her in-laws and proceeds to her parent's home. The bride's family prepares a lavish spread of non-vegetarian delicacies for the relatives from both homes. After the grand meal, the bride and groom return to the marital home, carrying with them all the gifts presented to the bride by her parents. It marks off the beginning of a fruitful and happy life for the couple and their families.

SOURCES   : KASHMIRI PANDIT NETWORK 
POSTED BY :VIPUL KOUL 
EDITED BY : ASHOK KOUL

 

Yoga

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the umbrella term "yoga" which includes religion, philosophy, and practices. For one of the six Hindu philosophy schools, see Yoga (philosophy). For the popular yoga that explains and emphasizes the physical practices or disciplines, see Hatha yoga. For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation).

Male and female yogis from 17th- and 18th-century India

This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/;^[1] Sanskrit, योगः Listen) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals^[2] in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.^[3][4][5] Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga.^[6]
The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre-Vedic Indian traditions; it is mentioned in the Rigveda,^{[note 1]} but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE,^[8] in ancient India's ascetic and śramaṇa movements.^{[9][note 2]} The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads.^[10] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE,^[11][12] but only gained prominence in the West in the 20th century.^[13] Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra.^[14][15]
Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west,^[16] following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century.^[16] In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world.^[15] Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more than physical exercise; it has a meditative and spiritual core.^[17] One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy.^[18]
Despite considerable research, there is little scientific evidence that yoga is beneficial for physical health, and it may cause muscular or spinal injuries, although it may improve mental health both for healthy people and for those with illnesses. Clinical studies on the health effects of yoga generally are of poor quality.
On December 1, 2016, yoga was listed by UNESCO as an Intangible cultural heritage.^[19]

Contents

• 1 Etymology
• 2 Goals
• 3 Schools
  • 3.1 Hinduism
  • 3.2 Buddhism
  • 3.3 Jainism
  • 3.4 Tantra
• 4 History
  • 4.1 Pre-Vedic India
  • 4.2 Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)
  • 4.3 Preclassical era (500–200 BCE)
  • 4.4 Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)
  • 4.5 Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)
• 5 Modern history
  • 5.1 Reception in the West
• 6 Exercise and health applications
  • 6.1 Potential benefits for adults
  • 6.2 Physical injuries
• 7 Beliefs
• 8 Yoga and specialized meditation
  • 8.1 Zen Buddhism
  • 8.2 Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism
• 9 Reception in other religions
  • 9.1 Christianity
  • 9.2 Islam
• 10 International Day of Yoga
• 11 See also
• 12 Notes
• 13 References
  • 13.1 Sources
• 14 Further reading
• 15 External links

Etymology

Statue of Shiva in Bangalore, Karnataka, India, performing yogic meditation in the Padmasana posture.

In Sanskrit, the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" in its most common senses; as such. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses (cf. English yoke and Latin iugum/jugum), the word took on broader meanings such as "employment, use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to harness" as in "to put something to some use"). All further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and "diligence" are also found in Indian epic poetry.^[20]
There are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection", "contact", "union", "method", "application", "addition" and "performance". In simpler words, Yoga also means "combined". For example, guṇáyoga means "contact with a cord"; chakráyoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh)"; chandráyoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation"; puṃyoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhaktiyoga means "devoted attachment" in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyāyoga has a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the supreme" due to performance of duties in everyday life^[21]
According to Pāṇini, a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate).^[22] In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology.^[23] In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras,^[24] states that yoga means samādhi (concentration).^[25]
According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate).^[22] Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi (may be applied to a man or a woman) or yogini (traditionally denoting a woman).^[26]

Goals

The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha (liberation), although the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated.
According to Jacobsen, "Yoga has five principal meanings:^[27]

1. Yoga, as a disciplined method for attaining a goal;
2. Yoga, as techniques of controlling the body and the mind;
3. Yoga, as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana);
4. Yoga, in connection with other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga;
5. Yoga, as the goal of Yoga practice."^[27]

According to David Gordon White, from the 5th century CE onward, the core principles of "yoga" were more or less in place, and variations of these principles developed in various forms over time:^[28]

1. Yoga, is a meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it for release from suffering, inner peace and salvation; illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras, in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as Jain texts;^[29]
2. Yoga, as the raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything; these are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its Epic Mahābhārata, Jainism Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts;^[30]
3. Yoga, as a path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reality; examples are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways;^[31]
4. Yoga, as a technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments; these are, states White, described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta;^[32] James Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions.^[33]

White clarifies that the last principle relates to legendary goals of "yogi practice", different from practical goals of "yoga practice," as they are viewed in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era, in the various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.^[34]

Schools

The term "yoga" has been applied to a variety of practices and methods, including Jain and Buddhist practices. In Hinduism these include Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga.
The so-called Raja Yoga refers to Ashtanga Yoga, the eight limbs to be practiced to attain samadhi, as described in the Yoga Sutras of Pantajali.^[35] The term raja yoga originally referred to the ultimate goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi,^[36] but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.^[37]

Hinduism

Classical yoga

Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism.^[38] Yoga, in this context, is one of the six āstika schools of Hinduism (those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge).^[39][40]
Due to the influence of Vivekananda, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as the foundational scripture of classical yoga, a status which it only acquired in the 20th century.^[37] Before the twentieth century, other works were considered as the most central works, such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha,^[37] while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over Ashtanga Yoga.^[37]

Ashtanga yoga

Main articles: Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and Rāja yoga

Swami Vivekananda equated raja yoga with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.^[41]

Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga yoga.^[37] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy,^[42] It is often called "Rāja yoga", "yoga of the kings," a term which originally referred to the ultimate, royal goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi,^[36] but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.^[37]
Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development techniques for body, mind and spirit.^[43] Its epistemology (pramanas) is same as the Samkhya school. Both accept three reliable means to knowledge – perception (pratyākṣa, direct sensory observations), inference (anumāna) and testimony of trustworthy experts (sabda, agama). Both these orthodox schools are also strongly dualistic. Unlike the Sāṃkhya school of Hinduism, which pursues a non-theistic/atheistic rationalist approach,^[44][45] the Yoga school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god".^[46][47] Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts (yamas and niyamas) and an introspective way of life focused on perfecting one's self physically, mentally and spiritually, with the ultimate goal being kaivalya (liberated, unified, content state of existence).^[43][48][49]

Hatha yoga

Main article: Hatha yoga

A sculpture of Gorakshanath, a celebrated 11th century yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga.^[50]

Hatha yoga, also called hatha vidyā, is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of Hinduism:^[51][52][53]

1. Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Svātmārāma (15th century)
2. Shiva Samhita, author unknown (1500^[54] or late 17th century)
3. Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (late 17th century)

Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by Gorakshanath of the 11th century in the above list.^[51] Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today.^[55][56][57]
Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,^[58] has a series of asanas and pranayamas, such as tummo (Sanskrit caṇḍālī)^[59] and trul khor which parallel hatha yoga.

Shaivism

Main articles: Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta, and Nath

In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva.^[60] See also 'tantra' below.

Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhist meditation, Dhyāna in Buddhism, Yogacara, and Vajrayana

16th century Buddhist artwork in Yoga posture.

Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that aim to develop mindfulness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranquility, and insight.
Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana.^{[note 3]} The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā^{[note 4]} and jhāna/dhyāna.^{[note 5]}

Jainism

Main article: Jain meditation

Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Jewels.^[61] Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attain salvation, take the soul to complete freedom.^[62] It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana.^{[citation needed]}

Tantra

Main articles: Tantra, Yogi, and Siddhi

Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept.^[63] Tantra yoga may be described, according to Samuel, as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts, which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and drawings (mandala), fierce male and particularly female deities, transgressive life stage related rituals, extensive use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques, all aimed to help one's health, long life and liberation.^[63][64]

History

The origins of yoga are a matter of debate.^[65] There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India. Suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1900 BCE)^[66] and pre-Vedic Eastern states of India,^[67] the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), and the śramaṇa movement.^[68] According to Gavin Flood, continuities may exist between those various traditions:

[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.^{[69][note 6]}

Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200 BCE. Between 200 BCE–500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.^[71] The Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy.

Pre-Vedic India

Main article: Indus Valley Civilization

Yoga may have pre-Vedic elements.^[66][67] Some state yoga originated in the Indus Valley Civilization.^[72] Marshall,^[73] Eliade^[10] and other scholars suggest that the Pashupati seal discovered in Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose. This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain by more recent analysis of Srinivasan^[10] and may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings".^[74]

Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)

Main article: Vedic period

According to Crangle, some researchers have favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis",^{[75][note 7]} just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the ultimate source of all spiritual knowledge.^{[76][note 8]} Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model where pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and its refinement began in the Vedic period.^[79]
Ascetic practices, concentration and bodily postures described in the Vedas may have been precursors to yoga.^[80][81] According to Geoffrey Samuel, "Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic] practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE."^[9]
According to Zimmer, Yoga philosophy is reckoned to be part of the non-Vedic system, which also includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism:^[67] "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."^{[82][note 9]}

Textual references

The first use of the root of word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "yogically control".^{[85][86][note 10]}
The earliest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda, states Karel Werner.^[7]

The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.

— Karel Werner, Yoga and the Ṛg Veda^[7]

Rigveda, however, does not describe yoga and there is little evidence as to what the practices were.^[7] Early references to practices that later became part of yoga, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest Hindu Upanishad.^{[note 11]} For example, the practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (concentrating all of one's senses on self) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE).^{[89][note 12]}

Vedic ascetic practices

Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga.^{[note 13]} Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic asanas.^[80] Early Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis, the keśin, and vratyas.^[92] Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000–800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda.^[80][93] Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition.^{[note 14]}

Preclassical era (500–200 BCE)

Yoga concepts begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200 BCE such as the Pali Canon, the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata.^{[96][note 15]}

Upanishads

The first known appearance of the word "yoga", with the same meaning as the modern term, is in the Katha Upanishad,^[10][99] probably composed between the fifth and third century BCE,^[100][101] where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leading to a supreme state.^{[92][note 16]} Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness.^[103][104] It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. White states:

The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE[…] [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).^[105]

The hymns in Book 2 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, another late first millennium BCE text, states a procedure in which the body is held in upright posture, the breath is restrained and mind is meditatively focussed, preferably inside a cave or a place that is simple, plain, of silence or gently flowing water, with no noises nor harsh winds.^[106][104]
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, likely composed in a later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, mentions sixfold yoga method – breath control (pranayama), introspective withdrawal of senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), mind concentration (dharana), philosophical inquiry/creative reasoning (tarka), and absorption/intense spiritual union (samadhi).^{[10][104][107]}
In addition to the Yoga discussion in above Principal Upanishads, twenty Yoga Upanishads as well as related texts such as Yoga Vasistha, composed in 1st and 2nd millennium CE, discuss Yoga methods.^[108][109]

Sutras of Hindu philosophies

Yoga is discussed in the ancient foundational Sutras of Hindu philosophy. The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to have been composed sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE discusses Yoga.^{[110][111][note 17]} According to Johannes Bronkhorst, an Indologist known for his studies on early Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at the University of Lausanne, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes Yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the soul and therefore not in the senses".^[113] This is equivalent to pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses, and the ancient Sutra asserts that this leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), then describes additional yogic meditation steps in the journey towards the state of spiritual liberation.^[113]
Similarly, Brahma sutras – the foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, discusses yoga in its sutra 2.1.3, 2.1.223 and others.^[114] Brahma sutras are estimated to have been complete in the surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE,^[115][116] and its sutras assert that yoga is a means to gain "subtlety of body" and other powers.^[114] The Nyaya sutras – the foundational text of the Nyaya school, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE,^[117][118] discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. This ancient text of the Nyaya school includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation), samadhi, and among other things remarks that debate and philosophy is a form of yoga.^{[119][120][121]}

Macedonian historical texts

Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE. Along with his army, he took Greek academics with him who later wrote memoirs about geography, people and customs they saw. One of Alexander's companion was Onesicritus, quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo, who describes yogins of India.^[122] Onesicritus claims those Indian yogins (Mandanis ) practiced aloofness and "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless".^[123]
Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them, who is initially denied audience, but later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy".^[123] Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogins consider the best doctrine of life as "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit".^[122][123] These principles are significant to the history of spiritual side of yoga.^[122] These may reflect the ancient roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in later works of Hindu Patanjali and Buddhist Buddhaghosa respectively, states Charles Rockwell Lanman;^[122] as well as the principle of Aparigraha (non-possessiveness, non-craving, simple living) and asceticism discussed in later Hinduism and Jainism.^{[citation needed]}

Early Buddhist texts

Werner states, "The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time."^[124] He notes:^[125]

But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.^[125]

The chronology of completion of these yoga-related Pali Canons, however, is unclear, just like ancient Hindu texts.^[126][127] Early known Buddhist sources like the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation, while the Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins (meditators) that resemble early Hindu descriptions of Muni, Kesins and meditating ascetics,^[128] but these meditation-practices are not called yoga in these texts.^[129] The earliest known specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature, as understood in modern context, is from the third- to fourth-century CE scriptures of the Buddhist Yogācāra school and fourth- to fifth-century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa.^[129]
A yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools.^[125] Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time.^{[130][131][note 18]}
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition.^[133][134] The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.^[135] However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini.^[136]

Uncertainty with chronology

Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.^[137] The earliest reference to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads.^[92] Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the Upanishad.^[80] Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.^[138]

Bhagavad Gita

Krishna narrating the Gita to Arjuna

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,^[139] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:^[140]

• Karma yoga: The yoga of action.^[141]
• Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion.^[141]
• Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.^[142][143]

The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses),^[144] with each chapter named as a different yoga, thus delineating eighteen different yogas.^[144][145] Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga, and the last six chapters with 211 shlokas as Jnana yoga; however, this is rough because elements of karma, bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters.^[144]

Mahabharata

Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata. The verses of the section are dated to c. 300–200 BCE^{[citation needed]}. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like vichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali's terminology are mentioned, but not described.^[146] There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata. Separation of self from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being identical.^[147] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.^[148]
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman that pervades all things.^[147]

Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)

This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices. Of these, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work.

Classical yoga

During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE–500 CE) philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.^[71]
Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be completed between 200 BCE–200 CE. Kauṭilya's Arthashastra in verse 1.2.10, for example, states that there are three categories of anviksikis (philosophies) – Samkhya (nontheistic), Yoga (theistic) and Cārvāka (atheistic materialism).^[149][150]

Samkhya

Further information: Samkhya

Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic methodology by about first century CE. Of these, Samkhya was probably one of the oldest philosophies to begin taking a systematic form.^[151] Patanjali systematized Yoga, building them on the foundational metaphysics of Samkhya. In the early works, the Yoga principles appear together with the Samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras, also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy), describes the relation between the two systems.^[152] The two schools have some differences as well. Yoga accepted the conception of "personal god", while Samkhya developed as a rationalist, non-theistic/atheistic system of Hindu philosophy.^{[44][153][154]} Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya.^[155]
The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord."^[156]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[157]
Pada (Chapter)	English meaning	Sutras
Samadhi Pada	On being absorbed in spirit	51
Sadhana Pada	On being immersed in spirit	55
Vibhuti Pada	On supernatural abilities and gifts	56
Kaivalya Pada	On absolute freedom	34

In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox (which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical schools.^[158][159] Karel Werner, author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.^{[note 19]}
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schools of thought, particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD, notes Larson.^[161] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras is a synthesis of these three traditions. From Samkhya, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge.^[161] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhist's concept of no self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul.^[161] The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from middle Upanishads such as Katha, Shvetashvatara and Maitri.^[161]
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are widely regarded as the first compilation of the formal yoga philosophy.^[162] The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE).^[163] Patanjali's yoga is also referred to as Raja yoga.^[164] Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra:

योगश्‍चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः
(yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ)
- Yoga Sutras 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".^[165] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."^[166] Edwin Bryant explains that, to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."^{[43][167][168]}
If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of nirodha (mental control), then its goal is "the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process)",^[169] according to Baba Hari Dass. In that context, "yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state", and "as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation."^[170]
Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept is derived from the 29th Sutra of the Book 2 of Yoga Sutras. They are:

1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),^[171] Satya (truthfulness, non-falsehood),^[172] Asteya (non-stealing),^[173] Brahmacharya (celibacy, fidelity to one's partner),^[173] and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possessiveness).^[172]
2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Śauca (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),^[174] Santosha (contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),^[175] Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),^[176] Svādhyāya (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),^[177] and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).^[175]
3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama ("Breath exercises"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

Yoga and Vedanta

Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. They share many thematic principles, concepts and belief in self/soul, but diverge in degree, style and some of their methods. Epistemologically, Yoga school accepts three means to reliable knowledge, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways.^[178] Yoga disputes the monism of Advaita Vedanta.^[179] Yoga school believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of Oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is aloof yet transcendent, liberated and self-aware. Further, Advaita Vedanta school enjoins the use of Patanjali's yoga practices and the reading of Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good, ultimate freedom and jivanmukti.^[179]

Yoga Yajnavalkya

Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya

संयोगो योग इत्युक्तो जीवात्मपरमात्मनोः॥
saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmanoḥ॥
Yoga is union of the individual self (jivātma) with the supreme self (paramātma).

—Yoga Yajnavalkya^[180]

The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya. It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi, a renowned philosopher.^[181] The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE.^[182] Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya.^[183] The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight yoga Asanas – Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura,^[184] numerous breathing exercises for body cleansing,^[185] and meditation.^[186]

Jainism

Main article: Jainism

Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in the Kayotsarga posture.

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body.^[5] Umasvati calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or karmic influx^[187] as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation.^[187] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.^[188] Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.^[189] The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.^{[190][note 20]}
Mainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga can be see in Haribhadra's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali's eightfold yoga.^[192]

Yogacara school

Main article: Yogacara

In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of Classical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta period (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a "yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva.^[193] The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enlightenment.^[194]

Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)

Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged in this period.^[195]

Bhakti movement

Main article: Bhakti Yoga

The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead"). The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries.^[196] Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as the practical meditative exercises, with devotion.^[197] Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha (separation) bhakti. Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna.^[198]

Tantra

Tantra is a genre of yoga that arose in India no later than the 5th century CE.^{[199][note 21]} George Samuel states, "Tantra" is a contested term, but may be considered as a school whose practices appeared in mostly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10th century CE.^[63] Over its history, some ideas of Tantra school influenced the Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Elements of Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia.^[201][202]
By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.^[14][15]

Vajrayana Buddhism

Main article: Vajrayana

Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts were compiled starting with 7th century and Tibetan translations were completed in 8th century CE. These tantra yoga texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge that was imported into Tibet.^[203] They were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages, helping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism. The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras.^[204] Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.^{[59][205][206]}

Hatha Yoga

Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika

The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century.^[207] The earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha, which defines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etc.^[208] Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises.^[209] It marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage^[210] and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today.^[211]

Sikhism

Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century, when Sikhism was in its nascent stage. Compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he had with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga.^[212] Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga.^[213] He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation on the name) instead.^[214] The Guru Granth Sahib states:

Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."^[215]

Modern history

Reception in the West

The Ustrasana, also known as the camel pose, is one of several yoga asana (pose).

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy. In the context of this budding interest, N. C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851.
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience, Swami Vivekananda, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.^[216] The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists, among them Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), who drew on German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), Max Mueller (1823–1900), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), and others who had (to varying degrees) interests in things Indian.^[217][218]
Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public's view of Yoga.^[219] Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.^[220] The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neoplatonism-based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. M. Eliade, himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions,^{[citation needed]} brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.^{[note 22]} With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.^[221]
The American born yogi by the name of Pierre Arnold Bernard, after his travels through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal, founded the Tantrik Order of America in 1905. His teachings gave many westerners their first glimpse into the practices of yoga and tantra.^[222]
The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of N. C. Paul and Major D. Basu in the late 19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897–1989) and Swami Kuvalayananda.^[223] Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda's Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center, starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science.^[224]
Outside of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions in Asia, the term "yoga" has been usually synonymous with its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise.^[225] This aspect of Yoga was adopted as a cultural trend in Europe and North America starting in the first half of the 20th century. There were periods of criticism and paranoia against yoga as well.^[219] By the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages, those of Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963) and of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989).^[226] Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included B.K.S. Iyengar (1918–2014), K. Pattabhi Jois (1915–2009), Swami Vishnu-devananda (1927–1993), and Swami Satchidananda (1914–2002).^{[227][228][229]} Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969.^[230] Comprehensive, classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, Samkhya, the subtle body theory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass (1923–), in the United States and Canada.^[231]
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter-culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to any religious denomination.^[216] Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19th and early-20th century Western exercise traditions.^[232]

A group of people practicing yoga in 2012.

Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has expanded. The number of people who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011). It has drawn support from world leaders such as Barack Obama who stated, "Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,... Every day, millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge".^[233]
The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly-trained professionals deliver instruction. The College cites yoga's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength.^[234]

Exercise and health applications

Main article: Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine

Yoga has been studied and may be recommended to promote relaxation, reduce stress and improve some medical conditions such as premenstrual syndrome.^[235] Yoga is considered to be a low-impact activity that can provide the same benefits as "any well-designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles". It is particularly promoted as a physical therapy routine, and as a regimen to strengthen and balance all parts of the body.^[235]
A preliminary study indicated that yoga may improve psychological health during cancer treatment, although more complete clinical evidence is needed to confirm this possible effect.^[236] Other preliminary research indicated that yoga could be a useful supplementary treatment to reduce the general psychopathology of schizophrenia,^[237] and may have positive effects on mental health, although the quality of research to define these effects is low.^[238]
In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance. Yoga was one of 17 practices evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found, with the caveat that "Reviewers were limited in drawing definite conclusions, not only due to a lack of studies for some clinical conditions, but also due to the lack of information reported in the reviews and potentially in the primary studies."^[239]

Potential benefits for adults

Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias.^{[236][240][241][242]} A 2013 systematic review found evidence that yoga was effective for low back pain in the short-term, and moderate evidence that it was effective in the long-term,^[243] but another study found a high incidence of back injuries from yoga.^[244]
There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to increase anxiety control,^[245] although there is a generally low quality of research and uncertainty for proving this effect.^[246] In preliminary research, yoga improved cognitive functioning.^[247] A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found no evidence that yoga was effective for metabolic syndrome.^[248]

Physical injuries

See also: Sports injury

Some yoga practitioners suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries;^[249] Yoga has been criticized for being potentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outlet syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the common fibular nerve and "Yoga foot drop."^[250] An exposé of these problems by William Broad published in January, 2012 in The New York Times Magazine^[251] resulted in controversy within the international yoga community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, and author of The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards,^[252] had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture.^[253]
Torn muscles, knee injuries,^[254] and headaches are common ailments which may result from yoga practice.^[255] In one 2016 survey over 13 years conducted in the United States, there were 29,590 yoga-related injuries reported from hospital emergency rooms, with trunk sprain injuries as the most frequent region injured, and an injury rate highest in participants 65 years and older.^[244]
An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga.^[249] In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries.^[249]
Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation, for pregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postures which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged.^[256]
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners' competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification.^[251] As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries.^[251] In turn, a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them.^[251][255]
Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke.^[257][258]
Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice.^[259]

Pediatrics

It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief: many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas, California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E., holding against the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program.^[260]

Beliefs

Seven chakras of a yogin

Main article: Yoga physiology

Over time, an extended yoga belief system developed, especially within the tantric tradition and hatha yoga. It pictures humans as composed of three bodies or five sheaths which cover the atman. The three bodies are described within the Mandukya Upanishad, which adds a fourth state, turiya, while the five sheaths (pancha-kosas) are described in the Taittiriya Upanishad.^[261] They are often integrated:

1. Sthula sarira, the Gross body, comprising the Annamaya Kosha^[262]
2. Suksma sarira, the Subtle body, composed of;
   1. the Pranamaya Kosha (Vital breath or Energy),
   2. Manomaya Kosha (Mind)
   3. the Vijnanamaya Kosha (Intellect)^[262]
3. Karana sarira, the Causal body, comprising the Anandamaya Kosha (Bliss)^[262]

Within the subtle body energy flows through the nadis or channels, and is concentrated within the chakras.

Yoga and specialized meditation

Main articles: Dhyāna in Buddhism, Dhyana in Hinduism, and Samadhi

Zen Buddhism

Zen, the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyāna" via the Chinese "ch'an"^{[note 23]} is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with yoga.^[264] In the west, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.^[265] This segregation deserves attention because yogic practices integrally exist within the Zen Buddhist school.^{[note 24]} Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.^[266]

Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism

In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound.^[267] The last six are described as "yoga yanas": "Kriya yoga", "Upa yoga," "Yoga yana," "Mahā yoga," "Anu yoga" and the ultimate practice, "Ati yoga." (Dzogchen)^[268] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.^[269]
Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre the practitioner.^[270] The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī (Tib. "tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan yoga."^[271] Chang also claims that Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Reception in other religions

Christianity

Main articles: Christian meditation, A Christian reflection on the New Age, and Aspects of Christian meditation

Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way.^[272] In 2013, Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli, servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI),^[273] said that for his Meditation, a Christian can learn from other religious traditions (zen, yoga, controlled respiration, Mantra), quoting Aspects of Christian meditation: "Just as "the Catholic Church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions," neither should these ways be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian. On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian conception of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured. It is within the context of all of this that these bits and pieces should be taken up and expressed anew."^[274] Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.^{[275][276][277]}
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian reflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican's position.^[278] The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge.^[272] The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures"^[279] but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality."^[272] Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.^[280]
Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. This is held by an interdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional boundaries to be crossed." ^[281]

Islam

In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali's Yogasutras.^[282][283] Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Patañjali 's Yoga philosophy, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology.^[282][284] Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD. Later, in the 16th century, the hath yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and then Persian.^[285] Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga practises, including postures and breath control.^[286][287] Muhammad Ghawth, a Shattari Sufi and one of the translators of yoga text in 16th century, drew controversy for his interest in yoga and was persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.^[288]
Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga, saying it had elements of Hinduism and that its practice was blasphemy, therefore haraam.^[289] Some Muslims in Malaysia who had been practicing yoga for years, criticized the decision as "insulting."^[290] Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said yoga was just a form of exercise.^[291] This fatwa is legally enforceable.^[292] However, Malaysia's prime minister clarified that yoga as physical exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is prohibited.^[293]
In 2009, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains Hindu elements.^[294] These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.^[295] Similar fatwas banning yoga, for its link to Hinduism, were issued by the Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.^[296]
In Iran, as of May 2014, according to its Yoga Association, there were approximately 200 yoga centres in the country, a quarter of them in the capital Tehran, where groups can often be seen practising in parks. This has been met by opposition among conservatives.^[297] In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted personal development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His comments were made in the context of reiki and yoga possibly being a form of proselytization at the expense of Islam.^[298]

International Day of Yoga

On 11 December 2014, The 193-member United Nations General Assembly approved by consensus, a resolution establishing 21 June as "International Day of Yoga".^[299] The declaration of this day came after the call for its adoption as International Day of Yoga by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his address to UN General Assembly on 27 September 2014.^{[300][301][302][303][304]} In suggesting 21 June, which is one of the two solstices, as the International Day of Yoga, Narendra Modi had said that the date is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and has special significance in many parts of the world.^[305]
The first International Day of Yoga was observed world over on 21 June 2015. About 35,000 people, including Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and a large number of dignitaries, performed 21 yoga asanas (yoga postures) for 35 minutes at Rajpath in New Delhi. The day devoted to yoga was observed by millions across the world.^[306] The event at Rajpath established two Guinness records – largest Yoga Class with 35,985 people and the record for the most nationalities participating in it—eighty four.^[307]