Sunday, November 10, 2013

The 36 tattvas

The 36 tattvas

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Chart of the 36 tattvas in Kashmir Shaivism
In Kaśmir Śaivism, the 36 tattvas describe the Absolute, its internal aspects and the creation including living beings, down to the physical reality. The addition of 11 supplemental tattvas compared to the Sāṃkhya allows for a richer, fuller vision of the Absolute. Going from śiva to pṛithvī tattva we find the process of manifestation, the creation of the universe; going the opposite way we find the process of spiritual evolution culminating with the dissolution in Śiva.
Tattvas divide into three groups: Ashuddha, or impure (material, sensorial, the organs of action, the mind and the ego), Shuddhashuddha, or pure-impure (the soul and its limitations) and Shudda, or pure (internal aspects of the Absolute). The impure tattvas are the domain of objectivity and duality, the pure-impure tattvas are the domain of knowledge and the pure tattvas are the domain of transcendental unity and non-differentiation.

Contents

The five mahābhūtas

The five mahābhūtas are the ingredients of the physical world. They represent the final point of manifestation, where light (Prakāśa) is condensed into matter, yet, at the same time, the mahābhūtas remain identical with Śiva.[1]

pṛithvī - earth

Pṛithvī tattva is produced by gandha tattva (medium for olfactory sensations). It is also the abode of Kuṇḍalinī Śakti, the energy that resides in potentiality at the base of the spinal column. Kuṇḍalinī Śakti is identical to Para Śakti when it emerges and rises to the top chakra.
According to ṣaḍādhvān the material world is created by Prakāśa (spiritual light, uncreated light). Kaśmir Śaivism describes the reflection of the top principle (Śiva tattva) right into the lowest principle (Pṛithvī tattva) – an idealist monistic world view where transcendence is present right in the middle of physical. Thus, there is no dualism between spirit and matter.
Pṛithvī tattva signifies concreteness, stability, patience, strength, abundance, nurturing and protection. Pṛithvī is symbolised by the Mother Earth – a universal symbol for fecundity, inexhaustible creativity and sustenance. Pṛithvī's specific shape is square, the specific color is yellow-brown. Its corresponding force center is Muladhara Chakra.

jala - water

Jala tattva (also known as apas tattva) refers to the liquid state. It is produced by Rasa tattva (the medium for taste sensations). Jala can assume any form, or we can say it contains all the possible forms. That is why it has been a symbol of the non-manifested, unlimited potentialities and the transcendence. Its basic state is passive and it can become the receptacle of various impressions and energies.
Other symbols associated with Jala tattva are: the power of purification, the subconscious mind, empathy, sexuality, abundance, power to dissolve, regenerate, the medium where the human life appears (amniotic fluid), the birthplace of life on our planet (primeval ocean) and the mythical chaos and formlessness that precedes creation. Waters exist before and after any cycle of creation. The linear flow of water as a river signifies the flow of time. Water immersion signifies the ritual regression to the original principle, reincorporation into the undifferentiated.[2]

tejas - fire

tejas tattva is produced by Rūpa tattva, the medium for visual sensations and corresponds to the third chakra, Manipura Chakra. Some of the qualities of fire are: solar, masculine, dynamic, restless and extroverted. Tejas is associated with the digestive fire, passion, intuition and the uncreated light of consciousness (Prakasa). Traditionally it has been associated with a number of animals, both real and mythical: lion, fox, horse, salamander, phoenix and dragon. The tattvic form of Tejas is the upwards pointing triangle and the tattvic color is red.
The concept of agni (fire) is associated with the concept of soma (nectar) forming a complementary pair. Soma is fuel to agni and it quenches its continuous thirst. From their union a new creation is born, and vice versa, the pair agni – soma appears everywhere there is a creative process. For example in a loving couple, passion is agni and the loved one is soma. In the human body, digestion is agni and food is soma. In the tantric sexual alchemy, there is the pair tejas (agni) – ojas (soma). Even on a larger scale, in a star, the atomic fire is agni and the hydrogen fuel is soma. When one looks carefully we can find a soma for any agni. In the human psyche, agni acts as desire and intentional will, and soma is whatever is the object of that desire or will.

vāyu - air

Vāyu tattva is produced by Sparśa tattva (the medium for the tactile sensations).
The symbolism of air contains among other: masculine, yang, mobile, dry, subtle and elevated. It is a symbol for freedom, open spaces, intellect, mind, the ability to fly, penetrate anywhere (like air does), intangible and elusive (like the wind). Breath symbolises life, to breathe is to assimilate spiritual power. In many languages breath is associated to the notion of soul:
  • in Arabic and Hebrew the word "ruh" signifies both "breath" and "spirit"
  • in Sanskrit, "atman" means breath, soul or vital principle
  • in Greek, "psyche" means both breath and life, soul
  • in Latin, "anima" means both breath and soul
  • in Romanian, the word "suflet" means soul, and comes from the word "suflu" which means breath
Vāyu tattva is considered to be the vehicle of prana; prana is the vital energy (etheric energy) that forms the etheric body (Pranamaya Kosa). Its tattvic shape is the circle, the color is blue.

ākāśa - ether

Ākāśa tattva is produced by Śabda, the medium for auditive sensations and is associated with the fifth chakra, Viśuddha. Ākāśa is fundamentally different from the other four mahābhūtas as it is non manifested in the physical world – it is the void, the space, support of the other four tattvas yet, unlike them, untouchable and unseen.
Ākāśa tattva is also called the aether or "fifth element". It is invisible, all pervading – a symbol of the spirit. It appears empty yet it contains huge energies (the energy of the void).
Aether is associated to the sky, has no qualities (hot or cold, wet or dry, no odor) and is unchangeable. Ākāśa is the support of the cosmic memory (the ākāśic records). Its form is the ovoid. The ovoid is the form of Brahmāṇḍa, the primordial world-egg, origin of the creation.

The five tanmātras - subtle mediums of the sensations

While mahābhūtas are the basis for the material world, sensations and perceptions are but limited aspects and views of it, in no way able to fully describe it. We cannot actually perceive the reality, all we can access are limited "bands" of information that form a description of reality. This restriction however applies only to the limited beings (jiva, or aṇu). For one who has gone beyond māyā, in the realm of the pure tattvas, there can be direct perception of reality, because as one's self is Atman, so are the external objects. In such a state an enlightened being can perceive the world beyond the five senses (direct perception), in a state of diversity in unity and unity in diversity. Another way to put it is that he then recognizes (Pratyabhijña) himself (Atman) in any object.
These bands of information are the five tanmātras. Being closer to the subject than the physical reality, tanmātras are more elevated than mahābhūtas and are described as their source of creation.

gandha - the transit medium for the olfactive sensations

  • smell in itself
  • creates pṛithvī tattva

rasa - the transit medium for the taste sensations

  • taste in itself
  • creates jala tattva

rūpa - the transit medium for the visual sensations

  • form (and color) in itself
  • creates tejas tattva
  • it contains forms and colors

sparśa - the transit medium for the touch sensations

  • touch in itself
  • creates vāyu tattva

śabda - the transit medium for the auditive sensations

  • sound in itself
  • creates ākāśa tattva

The five karmendriyas - organs of action

Karmendriyas represent both the physical organs and the corresponding subtle (astral) organs of action, specific to activity in the astral plane.
As their name says, karmendriyas are karman indriyas, that is internal organs that create karma. They are connected directly to the manas tattva and represent its solar, active function. The jñānendriyas (sense organs) represent the lunar, passive function of manas.

pāyu - the excretion organ

Pāyu tattva, the excretion organ, is the first karmendriya; it is associated with Muladhara chakra, having as inferior octaves the pṛithvī (earth) and gandha (smell) tattvas.

Its role in the awakening of Kundalini

Pāyu tattva is the medium of Kundalini[3] and the sexual energy (ojas) – a regenerative, almost inexhaustible power that lies at the lower part of the trunk. Correct control of this lower energy leads to a huge increase in spiritual power.
The harmonious activation of pāyu tattva is essential for obtaining control of such an energy. This is why many techniques involving pāyu tattva are methods of awakening of Kundalini:
  • aśvini mudrā – the horse gesture
  • mulā bandha – the root lock
  • śakticalana mudrā – moving the shakti
  • mahamudra – the great seal (from hatha yoga)
  • siddhasana, an important asana where the heel is pressing the perineum or anus
[4]
When pāyu is in harmony, there is a feeling of immense force, and better control. When it is disturbed, many conditions my occur such as: stubbornness, greed, fear and anxiety.[5]

upastha - the sexual organs

The term upastha means in Sanskrit sexual organs, 'the part which is under' or lap. Upastha tattva means the power of procreation and sexual enjoyment, or the generative organ.[6]

Differentiation and complementarity related to the sexual organs

Upasta tattva is the most differentiated organ in the body, between man and woman. Even the English word sex, coming from the Latin sexus, is related to the original meaning of division. Perhaps the most defining element of a human's body is its sex. We care to know a baby's sex before anything else. Thus sex divides humanity in two and defines our most fundamental psychological traits.
The other fundamental characteristic of upasta tattva is its complementarity. The male sexual organ (lingam) and the female sexual organ (yoni) are complete only in sexual union. In tantra, lingam has come to symbolise Śiva and yoni to symbolize Śakti, the two most elevated aspects of the Absolute. The sexual union depicted in the Yab-Yum posture represents not only the creative act on the human level, but also on a cosmic level. The union of Śiva and Śakti is eternal and supremely blissful, generating in its pulsating rhythm the fundamental movement of consciousness (spanda), which is the source of creation.
On a tangent note, the duality-complementarity principle also appears in physics: the wave-particle duality and the space-time couple are just the most prominent. Physicists talk about symmetry and symmetry breaking as fundamental in the structure of the universe.

Symbolism of the androgyne

Having both the male and female sexual organs, the androgyne represents perfect equilibrium and completeness. Ardhanarishvara is represented as half male, half female, Śiva and Śakti united into one being. Even if not on a physical level, the androgyne is completed in the tantric sadhana by awakening the spiritual force of the body (Kundalini) and uniting it with the principle of consciousness. In this state there is perfect harmony of the yin and yang and absorption into the Absolute.

Tantric practices related to the sexual organs

Besides maithuna and the tantric sexual union, there are a series of exercises meant to develop and control the sexual energies. One such exercise is yoni mudra.

pāda - the locomotion organ

Main article: Pada (Hindu mythology)
Pada Tattva represents both the physical organ of locomotion and the subtle energetic structures associated with it. Between the seven force centers it is associated with Manipura Chakra[7] and in the hierarchy of 36 tattvas it is a superior octave of tejas tattva.

Subtle anatomy of the feet

Feet acting as grounding conduits: the continuous contact of feet with the ground is a symbol of relying onto and being a part of the sphere of earth. In Hinduism some rites are required to be officiated bare foot.[8] Touching the ground permits a better contact with the earth energies.
The sole of the foot is seen as a microcosm of the body. All the organs and aspects are projected on the surface of the sole, forming a mystical map.[9] By massaging the sole of the foot, the healer intends to project his action on the whole body or on the diseased organ. This practice is called padabhyanga in ayurveda and in modern times appears as reflexology.

Symbol of force

The symbolism of the foot derives from that of its main functions: standing and walking. Standing upright is a poise of strength, self-esteem and human dignity. Walking represents an action of domination over space. The feet contain the largest muscles and bones of the body, develop the most powerful physical force and support the whole weight of the body. Thus, reuniting the symbols of force, dignity, uprightness and domination, it is associated with the concept of vira – the heroic being.

Symbol of devotion

The foot is seen in Hinduism as a symbol of devotion. The custom of venerating guru's feet is a clear message of acceptance and submission – by placing the foot of the master (lowest part of his body) on the head of the disciple (highest part of the body), the disciple assumes a totally receptive position, which is essential for the process of initiation. A variant of this practice is venerating the feet of a deity, for example Shiva, Vishnu or Buddha (buddhapada):.[10][11]

Symbol of humility

Kneeling (half-using the feet) symbolizes submission and humility. In some monasteries, monks not only knee, but lay flat down on the floor[12] face down during prayer (not using their feet at all) – signifying the total submission of the individual will in front of the divine.

Symbol of purity

The expression lotus feet appears in many religious texts in a devotional context. Ex: I worship the auspicious lotus feet of the Eternity called Bhagamalini.[13] The lotus is a symbol of beauty and purity. The foot, being in contact with the ground, is considered impure (but only in some contexts, because its symbolism is very complex). Thus, the expression lotus feet is a negation of impurity, a declaration of divinity.

Spiritual sacrifice

In pada-yatra, the devotional pilgrimage on foot, the participants seek purification through sacrifice. Sacrifice is considered to be a form of tejas (fire), which is tattvically associated with the pada tattva (feet).

Symbol of domination

The feet are also a symbol of domination. In the legend of Vamana, an incarnation of Vishnu, the world is completely covered in three steps (trivikrama) – one covered the earth (human world), the second covered the sky (the world of the deities) and the third was placed on the head of king Bali of asuras. The three strides represent domination over the physical, celestial and human worlds.
In another symbolic representation, Nataraja Shiva is crushing with his foot the demon Apasmara (a demon representing ignorance) – thus affirming himself as the supreme force that dissolves illusion through his divine grace.
In a related context, the feet can be a symbol of dependence. Kali, the goddess of time and transformation is represented as standing on the inactive body of Shiva. This image symbolizes the active role of Shakti, its reliance on Shiva in as support and the fact that Shiva needs Shakti in order to manifest.

Symbol of transcendence

The imprint of the feet on the ground is a symbol of transcendence. There are such sacred places of pilgrimage associated with various divine figures (see Buddha footprint and Petrosomatoglyph).

The foot in Hatha yoga

In Hatha Yoga, the feet are considered conduits of the energies of earth. They present a number of secondary chakras and nadi. In many asana they act as a grounding pathway.
  • Padahastasana (foot to hand circuit) – forming a closed circuit through the hands the and feet; feet also act as a conduit of the energies of earth (prithivi)
  • Sirsasana (headstand – up-down circuit) – feet are used as antennas for receiving the energies descending from the sky
  • Talasana (tree pose – down-up circuit) – hands stretched upwards connect to the energies of the sky while the feet connect to the energies of the earth
  • Trikonasana (triangle pose) – feet form a triangle with the earth, the triangle being the tattvic shape of tejas; this posture activates tejas and Manipura Chakra which are associated with Pada Tattva as stated before

Feet positions in meditation

In the traditional meditation postures feet act as physical support and are instrumental in the activation of the vital energies:
  • Padmasana (lotus pose) – here the feet form a closed circuit, a triangle base for the body and along with the hands, a pyramid shape for the whole body
  • Siddhasana (perfect pose) – the heel exerts pressure on the perineum (see payu tattva for more context) thus activating the sublimation of the sexual potential; the feet, associated with tejas, are thus united with the center of sexual energy (ojas), forming a complementary pair tejas-ojas (an instance of the agni-soma couple). Their union is the basis for the creative alchemical act of reverting sexual energy to ananda, its ultimate source.[citation needed]
  • Sukhasana (pleasant position) – the crossed legged position often used for meditation
  • Virasana (hero's pose) – feet are crossed; feet are also tattvically associated with the concept of Vira (spiritual hero)
  • Bhadrasana (position of the throne) – uniting the soles (and the chakras in the soles) a closed circuit appears, activating Kundalini[14]

Walking meditation

In walking meditation (also called Kinhin in Zen) one uses his feet to impose a structured rhythm to the mind. The aim here is to expand consciousness by stopping the fluctuations of the mind by this simple physical device.

Sacred dance

Sacred dance is another complex spiritual tradition where the feet play a major role. Here too every gesture is infused with consciousness and symbolism. As a form of art, it brings about the expansion of the consciousness for both the artists and the audience. The dynamic pose of Nataraja is a symbol of universal movement which is identical to the universal creative energy because everything in the world is movement and energy.

pāni - hand, the organ of apprehension

Pāni tattva (the hand) is the most complex action organ. Acting as a mirror of consciousness, it immediately reacts to, and expresses the will. It has a complex symbolism and multiple functions. The hand can express emotions and speech. One can see through touch and speak in hand language.
Pāni tattva is not equal to the physical hand itself but it is a structure in consciousness associated with the hand. Tattvically, pāni tattva is a superior octave of sparśa tattva (touch) and vāyu tattva (air). From the seven force centers, it is related to Anahata chakra.

Subtle anatomy of the hand

A series of minor force centers (chakras) exist in the palm of the hand, elbow and shoulder, united by a series of force channels (nadi).[15] Thus, the hand is a conduit of subtle energy. By performing a scared hand gesture (or a magical action, mudra) one can tune in a specific resonance. One's handprint is his symbol, signature, mark of possession and domination. Hindu Gods (deva) are often represented with multiple hands, suggesting their multidimensionality. A strong arm is the mark of the hero (vira). The invisible hand of God is a symbol of God's mysterious power.

Correspondence of the five fingers with the five elements

There are various ways fingers are associated to the five elements. For example: thumb – fire, index – air, middle – Sky, ring – earth, little – water. Almost all people develop a strong polarity between the hands, forming a preference for either the right hand or the left hand. The dominating hand is associated with yang and the other with yin. The hand and the body both have five extremities thus the hand has been put in correspondence with the body.
Pāni tattva is sometimes called the organ of apprehension and is the main external tool of the mind. Writing, in its role of external memory, is associated with ākāśa. The hand is a symbol of action, strength, domination and protection. It is used for imposing a specific resonance, energy transfer, giving a blessing and spiritually investing another person. The "eye in the hand" is associated with protection, luck[16] and 'clairvoyant action'.

Functions and symbols of the hand

More functions and symbols:
  • the hand that talks – hand language
  • the hand expresses emotions – fidgeting, etc.
  • the hand as an instrument of memory – writing, drawing
  • the hand as an instrument of healing (sometimes, the hand of the king) – miracle worker
  • the hand of providence (Hand of God) – symbol of the mysterious and irresistible power of God, forces outside the human control
  • the eloquent hand gesture – nonverbal communication, auxiliary communication
Symbolism of the hand gestures
  • both hands raised – victory, prayer, praising the Divine
  • one raised hand – symbol of the voice; symbol of song
  • hand on the heart – attitude of the sage
  • hand on the neck – sacrifice
  • covered or concealed – respect
  • folded – tranquility
  • palms upward, laid on each other – meditation
  • palms together – prayer
  • clenching fist – anger
  • raising the right hand – threatening
  • placed in the hands of another – submission and trust
  • clasping – praising the Lord (original symbolism), fraternity, welcome, agreement
  • handshake symbol – sincerity, friendship
  • many people joining hands – to unite
  • palm placed on the top of the head of another – blessing, investiture, relaying energy
  • raising a prized object with both hands – victory
[17] [18]

Role of the hand in Hatha yoga

In hatha yoga are described a series of hand gestures (mudra). The role of the mudra is to impose a specific resonance. Some of the mudras are:
  • abhaya mudra – the right hand slightly elevated, the palm turned outwards – fearlessness, renunciation
  • namaskara mudra – both palms folded together - prayer, purity, sacrality
  • jnana mudra – the tip of the index finger touches the tip of the thumb, forming a circle - concentration
  • dhyana mudra – both hands resting on the lap, palms upwards.[19][20]

vāk - the speech organ

Vak tattva is the organ of speech, including the mouth and the subtle structures of consciousness associated with it. As all the other karmendriyas, vak tattva is an instrument for the creation of karma and also an instrument for the practice of karma yoga, a discipline with the purpose of liberation from the bondage of karma.

Relationship with other tattvas

A number of other tattvas take part in the process of creation of sound: as support for the propagation of sound and for its cyclical oscillating nature is the time-space tattva, akasa. Because sound is a mechanical vibration, it also needs a physical support which is provided by vayu tattva (air), and thirdly, the articulation of sounds is related to the tongue (rasana tattva).
In the sequence of tattvas, vak tattva is the most elevated karmendriya and its corresponding sense organ - śrota tattva (the ear) is the first outward expansion of the mind (manas tattva). The force centers primarily associated with speech are Vishuddha chakra – center placed in the region of vak indriya and Muladhara chakra as the seat of pārāvak.[21]

Mouth and assimilation of food

Vak indriya (mouth), the instrument of eating, is also the first part of the body that comes in contact with the food and plays a role of subtle assimilation of energies, directly from the food. The mouth is described to be lined up with thousands of fine force channels (nadi) that have the role of absorbing prana from food.[22] In the practice of ayurvedic medicine, plants are taken and held under the tongue for a few minutes just for this same purpose.

Articulation of speech

Depending on the position where the tongue articulates speech, there are a number of classes of sounds: velar, palatal, cerebral, dental and labial. In Kashmir Shaivism each class of phonemes is correlated with specific mantric energies of the sound.[23] The full sequence of phonematic energies is called mātṛkā and contains 50 sounds, associated with the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet. On a cosmic scale, the creation of the universe is described in Kashmir Shaivism as an evolution of sound, a descending process originating from the level of logos (pārāvak). Each phoneme represents a stage in the process of evolution, a tattva, a world in itself. Sounds are associated with energies and ultimately with aspects of consciousness. The magical power of sounds and words is derived from this association with energy (śakti) and consciousness (śiva). The study of these energies is an essential part of Kashmir Shaivism.[24]
Vāk (speech) is seen as the result of the dynamic union of two parts that form the mouth (upper and lower), a complementary union of the opposites, yin and yang. There is always such a fusion of yin and yang at the basis of any creative process.

Speech as a creative power

Vak tattva plays a major creative role in the human being as the instrument of speech and as such, the origin of the interior world of thought. Speech acts as a mirror of the exterior reality, duplicating everything that exists outside into the mind. The word is the vehicle of the limited ego, ahamkara. The word as such is an imperfect tool though, because while it can reflect the exterior reality it always approximates. For example, when we say I saw a man we don't say much - what kind of man, what impressions did he give us, etc. The word is just an abstraction from reality. Thus language is at the same time a tool and an obstacle in knowledge.[25]

Three creative voids

Together with the mouth (the void that creates speech), two other creative aspects of the human body are the vulva (yoni) and the Heart (hṛdaya). Yoni creates both human life and of the energy of spiritual evolution (that is, the energy of transmuted sexual fluids and ascending kuṇḍalinī). The heart (hṛdaya, aham), as defined in Kashmir Shaivism, is a matrix of energies centered around the Self (ātman), substrate and center for all the activities of consciousness. Yoni, heart and mouth represent three levels of the void and three centers of creative power.
In relation to sexual activity, both mouth and yoni are somewhat similar in form and role and sometimes their use is reversed (see the so-called 69 sexual position). Kissing it begins a prelude to the sexual union and serves as a symbol of it. The mouth is the source of the exterior speech, but on the highest level, parāvak (supreme word) is also named Logos Spermatikos in Greek – (spermatikos=seed, a sexual reference to its role as a creative power).[26] Thus we can see the multiple parallels and connections between mouth and yoni as both are expressions of the creative void, matrices of creation present in the human body.

Levels of speech

Speech is considered in Kashmir Shaivism to exist on multiple levels, but only the exterior (or spoken) speech is expressed through vāk tattva. The full scale of speech is as follows:
  • vaikharī vāk – spoken word, exterior
  • madhyamā vāk – mental speech, interior
  • paśyantī vāk – pure intentionality, pre-speech
  • parāvāk  identical to the nature of the Spirit
[27][28]
As the self is expressed in three levels, ego, soul and spirit, so is speech expressed in three different ways:
  • at the level of the ego (ahaṃkāra), speech is fully differentiated; it includes madhyamā vāk and vaikharī vāk, thus the vehicle of speech is the word itself
  • at the level of the soul (jivātman, or puruṣa in Kashmir Shaivism) language is not ruptured from its real signification any more; it can be described as paśiantī vāk, the language of mantric syllables, symbols and non-sequential instant knowledge (intuition).
  • at the level of the spirit (atman), language is expressed as supreme word - parāvak; in term of sound, it is represents silence;[29] here there is only one single reality and one single meaning and it is described in a multitude of concepts, all approximative, as conscious light (prakāsa-vimarṣa), compact mass of consciousness and beatitude (cid-ananda-Ghana), supreme freedom (svātantrya), atemporal vibration (spanda) and the spontaneous flash of conscious light that projects objects into reality (abhāsa). Thus at this level there is absolutely no difference between the word and its significance.
On this scale vāk tattva corresponds to the first level of speech, that of the ego and vaikharī vāk.

Limiting power of words

The power of words is that of creating a new world, a world of the mind. Words act as symbols of external reality, yet their very act of indicating (or reflecting the exterior reality) is imprecise. Being trapped into the prison of words, ruptured from direct experience, the western philosophy is limited to an edifice of mental speculation.[30] While philosophy relies solely on words it cannot be a true path to the absolute Truth, because words are imprecise, limited tools.[31] Thus in Kashmir Shaivism as in many other oriental spiritual schools, accent falls on direct experience and realization through the means of the various disciplines of yoga and meditation. In Shaivism, words play as references, mere guide marks or pointers for the consciousness in its endeavor of rediscovering its true nature.[32]

Occult power of the word

The word has spiritual, magical, mystical and even demoniac powers, some of which are described in the following concepts:
  • mantra – the sacred syllable, both sound and spiritual energy, is a fundamental tool in tantra and consequently, in Kashmir Shaivism (see the practice of japa and uccara)
  • prayer and religious chanting – are essential instrument in religious rituals
  • casting a spell, incantation – speech is the principal magical instrument
  • scriptures – sacred words considered to be originated from God Himself, such as agamas in Kashmir Shaivism; a notable difference between the occidental scriptures and the Kashmir Shaivism agamas is that the agamas are considered to be Shiva Himself, in the form of word, not just the mere words of Shiva
  • degraded speech – curses and profanities – associated with demoniac resonances
  • satya siddhi – the power of efficient speech – whatever one says, comes true – such a power is said to be the result of the practice of satya – truthfulness
  • nyāsa – a magical ritual of imposing mantras with the hand on specific parts of the human body, thus awakening the latent occult powers within it

Word as a medium for spiritual initiation

In most spiritual schools, speech is the preferred medium of spiritual initiation. Sometimes written word is used, but the most secret initiations are traditionally transmitted "from mouth to ear". Oral teachings are usually reinforced through repetition (ritual) to become a spiritual foundation.[33]

Words in meditation

The practice of meditation aims to stop the mental chatter altogether (the concept of "citta-vritti-nirodha" of Patanjali) or replace it with sacred speech (laya yoga, japa, uccara). Regular speech must be put aside in order for consciousness to reach that level which goes beyond the mental.
  • mauna (self-imposed silence) – produces the accumulation of a large energy in vak tattva
  • bhavana (contemplation) – speech charged with spiritual energy (Sakti) through intense visualisation
  • koan – a kind of paradoxical contemplation expressed in words with the purpose of projecting the mind beyond words
  • neti neti – a kind of contemplation where negation is used instead of affirmation; the reasoning behind this technique is that the absolute cannot be captured in any affirmative affirmation as it lies beyond the sphere of speech, but it can be discovered through meditation with the help of various negations ("Atman (the spirit) is not this, Atman is not that") that act only as guide marks along the way, pointing to the various mistaken assumptions that need to be surpassed
  • devotional speech - known under various names in other spiritual traditions as nembutsu, dhikr; in Kashmir Shaivism too there are a number of remarkable devotional works

The five jñānendriyas - sense organs

ghrāṇa - nose

rasanā - tongue

cakṣu - eye

tvak - skin

śrotra - ear

Antaḥkaraṇa - the inner instrument

Antaḥkaraṇa, also called the internal organ, is part of the pure-impure tattvas. Activity in these tattvas is subjective cum objective. Antaḥkaraṇa contains five tattvas: manas, ahaṃkāra, buddhi, prakṛti and puruṣa tattva.

manas - the lower mind

The manas name comes from the verbal root man – to think. Manas is the instrument for the creation of vikalpa (dual thoughts). Its state is described as always agitated. Manas is the hub connecting the ten organs of action and senses to the upper tattvas (intellect, ego and soul). It does not simply transit the sensations, but also filters and assembles them into a coherent vision. Manas operates based on learned behavior, instincts, habits and automatisms, like a complex computer processing data (from the senses) and transmitting commands. Because of its agitated nature, manas is termed "the undisciplined mind", fraught with contradictions: doubt, faith, lack of faith, shame, desire, fear, steadfastness, lack of steadfastness.
Manas interprets everything in terms of attraction and repulsion. While the ego (ahaṃkāra tattva) can understand and assume a moral code, the notions of good and evil, manas is limited to the complementary pair of pleasure and pain, acting only on the desires that arise. Its program is Repeat pleasure and avoid pain.[34]
Manas operates both in the subtle and the physical plane (brain). Manas is the center of logical reasoning while buddhi is the center of intuition, discrimination and will. Depending on the state of consciousness, manas can act either as a cause of conditioning and bondage or as a path towards freedom. The latter is possible for poets, artists and those who are illuminated (can operate within the pure tattvas, beyond māyā).

ahaṃkāra - the empirical ego

Ahaṃkāra tattva is the first seat of subjectivity. Ahaṃ means "I" and kāra means "to do", thus, ahaṃkāra - the instrument of Ahaṃ (the Spirit), the principle of individuation, acting as an independent conscious entity within the impure reality - yet, it does not have consciousness of its own. ahaṃkāra is a receptacle of Cit śakti, its consciousness is but a small spark from Cit, the universal consciousness. Its operating mode is assuming authorship of all the actions of buddhi, manas, the senses and organs of action.
Ahaṃkāra lives in the sphere of duality, in a state of identification with the physical body, its needs and desires. In ahaṃkāra predominates rajas guna (agitation). Because it identifies only with a small part of the creation (the body) and rejects everything else as "not me", it becomes subject to a series of afflictions such as: pride, egoism, competitiveness, hate and jealousy.
On the other hand, with ahaṃkāra tattva appears, for the first time, individual will, determination, a sense of morality and ethics and it is thus the first step on the spiritual path. Without a sufficiently harmonious and powerful ahaṃkāra (personality) it is impossible to exert the level of effort required to accede to a higher spiritual level.
The position of ahaṃkāra and buddhi are sometimes presented in reversed order because, as the principle of "I-ness", ahaṃkāra is allowed control over the manas (sensorial mind) and buddhi (superior intellect, intuition). Yet, buddhi is a superior tattva, and ahaṃkāra is only allowed from a functional point of view a superior position to buddhi. From an absolute point of view, ahaṃkāra is created by buddhi and thus subordinated to it.

buddhi - the intellect

Buddhi tattva represents the intuitive understanding, the superior mind, which can rise above ego and the sensorial. It does value judgments, discriminates between possibilities, decides and determines, based on the information presented from the lower tattvas. In buddhi tattva there is a predominance of sattva guna (purity) and the energy of jñāna śakti – the energy of knowledge.
The name buddhi contains the Sanskrit radical dhi, meaning reflection, intuitive penetration and higher awareness. Other notable terms containing dhi are samādhi (yogic ecstasy) and dhyana (meditation). One of the prescribed ways of developing buddhi is the study of sacred texts. In Kashmiri Shaivism, Bauddha Jñāna (the intuitive and conceptual understanding) is considered the foundation of illumination because once profoundly understood, something is always accessible, while the second type of knowledge, Paurusha Jñāna (to know through direct experience) is limited only to the moments of inspiration.

prakṛti tattva

Prakṛti tattva is the fundamental operative energy of the soul (jivatman), or, in other words, it creates the world of puruṣa. In Kaśmir Śaivism prakṛti has a different meaning than in Sāṃkhya; while here it means an energy of the individual, in Sāṃkhya it refers to the fundamental energy of the manifestation. Thus, as defined in Kaśmir Śaivism, every puruṣa has his individual prakṛti.
Prakṛti and Puruṣa are closely interdependent. They are the reflection of śiva and śakti tattva in the sphere of māyā. The difference is that, while śiva and śakti tattva are infinite and nondual, puruṣa and prakṛti are limited and subject to duality. Other than that, what śiva-śakti do on a universal scale, puruṣa-prakṛti do on a personal scale. They have the same energies of will, knowledge and action and perform the five actions of creation, sustenance, dissolution, occultation and grace.
In G. V. Tagare's The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, these five actions and their correlates are given as follows:[35]
Role Śiva's level Level of the limited being
appearance (creation) sṛṣṭi ābhāsana
enjoying (maintenance) sthiti rakti
experiencing within oneself (resorption) saṃhāra vimarśana
sowing seeds
(occultation, reduction of knowledge
to a subconscious impression, saṃskāra)		 vilaya bījāvasthapāna
dissolution of residual impressions(saṃskāras),
grace, nonduality		 anugraha vilāpana
Prakṛti tattva has three tendencies (guna), in perfect equilibrium: Sattva (purity), Rajas (agitation) and Tamas (inertia). They derive from the triad Icchā, Jñāna and Kriyā as follows:
Guna Derives from Produces
Sattva Jñāna śakti Buddhi tattva
Rajas Icchā śakti Ahaṃkara tattva
Tamas Kriyā śakti Manas tattva
Prakṛti is the source of all tattvas from buddhi down to pṛithvī (earth) – the creator of both the individual and of the external reality.[36]

puruṣa

Puruṣa tattva is defined as the living soul (jivatman), the limited being (jiva), the one who is bound (paśu),[37] the spiritual atom (aṇu). It is not only the human being, but every sentient being.
Puruṣa appears as the result of the process of contraction or occultation Śiva assumes willingly. This feat is achieved by the five limitations (kañcuka tattvas) and the cosmic illusion (māyā tattva). Śiva is also known as Pati, the master, while Puruṣa is the Paśu (the bonded one). Between Pati and Paśu is Pāśa - the limitation itself. Pāśa is the cumulative effect of māyā and the five kañcukas, or, from another perspective, the effect of the three impurities or poisons (malas): ānava mala, kārma mala and māyīya mala.
  • Ānava Mala – the belief that he is limited, finite and small in comparison to the world
  • Kārma Mala – the belief that he (the limited self) is the author of the action, instead of recognizing Atman as the real agent
  • Māyīya Mala – the belief in duality, separatedness [37]
Puruṣa acts as the subject in all the limited (dual) mental and sensorial states of consciousness. In fact the real author of all the actions is Atman, the supreme Self, which resides at the level of śiva and śakti tattva. Puruṣa is the owner of prakṛti, which creates the intellect, ego, sensorial mind, senses and organs of action. Puruṣa needs prakṛti in order to act as an individual in relation to the external reality, but he doesn't need any intermediary to reconnect to his source, Atman.

Ṣat kañcukas

Kañcukas means armour. Here it is used in the sense of limiting filter, a restrictive force creating a "prison" for the consciousness inside the dual creation.
Powers that maintain the individual soul resting in the middle like Trishanku, which otherwise would fall into the condition of complete inertia like a rock, etc, or would ascend into the sky of Consciousness like the Supreme Lord. Abhinavagupta [38]

The theory of the 5 sheaths existed long before. Shankara writes in his 'Atma Bodha'[39] about the five sheaths the Immaculate Atman appears to have borrowed.
Trishanku is a mythical character who wanted to ascend to heaven in his physical body. While the sage Viswamitra was helping him ascend, the Gods were in opposition, thus he became suspended half way through.
Abhinavagupta describes the kañcukas as five forces that create a middle ground between the realm of the pure tattvas and objectivity; the purpose of this middle ground is to reunite both the spiritual and the material, the subjective and the objective - a playground of spiritual evolution that is needed if such entities as jiva (the limited being) are to exist.
Thus kañcukas have a triple role: they act as an entry barrier towards the realm of the pure tattvas for the limited beings (jiva), they also act as a gateway for the illuminated, who can pass without impediment between the pure and impure realities, and finally, they create a middle ground of subjective-cum-objective activity, where spiritual evolution can take place.
The five kañcukas present both a limited aspect and a universal aspect. They are like intervals, with one end in the infinite and the other end in the finite. They are:
omnipotence – sarvakartṛtva limited power – kalā
omniscience – sarvajñatva limited knowledge – vidyā
fullness, perfection – pūrṇatva limitation of desire – rāga
eternity – nityatva limitation of time or life – kāla
omnipresence – vyāpakatva limitation of space – niyati
[40]
The combined effect of the five limitations (kañcukas), is described as follows, by Abhinavagupta, in just one phrase:
Thus, the subject, being limited or intertwined with kāla, vidyā, kalā, rāga and niyati and being deprived of divine glory by māyā, shines as limited, feeling 'that which knows something now, does this and is attached to this, am I' – Īśvarapratyabhijñā Vimarśinī of Abhinavagupta.[41]

niyati - spatial limitation

Niyati tattva reduces the state of omnipresence to the level of finitude. The subject can be only in one place, his body is limited and outside his body is the domain of "not myself". This is the fundamental duality of the existence in the impure domain (meaning tattvas from puruṣa to pṛithvī).
Based on the duality between the limited subject and the world, a series of physical limitations arise, like: hunger, fatigue, sickness and the need to protect oneself. By constant identification with these limitations the ego (ahaṃkāra) is formed. Ahaṃkāra exerts itself tirelessly in its pursuit of happiness, yet it understands happiness in a very limited and dual fashion, which can never be a stable fulfillment.

kāla - limitation in time

Kāla tattva reduces the experience of eternity to that of time and limited life span. Under kāla tattva time takes three aspects: past, present and future. But while the past is just a memory and the future is a probability, only the present is actually experienced.
Time limitation has to do with death, rebirth and becoming subject to the cosmic cycles of life. Time is relative to the observer. Objective time is sometimes faster, other times slower than the subjective (interior) time. As the consciousness expands, time flow is perceived as being slower. When a state of enlightenment (the revelation of the Self, Atman) is achieved, kāla kañcukas (limitation) becomes transparent and eternity shines as the present moment.

rāga - incompleteness, the limitation of desire

Rāga tattva is the limitation of the "perfect fullness of the Absolute". While in the realm of the pure tattvas (from śiva tattva to śuddha vidyā tattva) every possibility is simultaneously fulfilled, under the effects of this limitation, there is experience of incompleteness, and so, desire for various objects appears.
The source of perfect bliss is a Ānanda. Ānanda is the reflection of absolute consciousness (Cit) on itself. In an analogy, the white light of Cit is said to become the rainbow of Ānanda, expressing every possible color at the same time. Yet, in the dual world, the infinite nuances of Ānanda cannot be experienced at once, and appear as various distinct forms of emotion or rasa (aesthetic flavours). This is the work of the rāga kañcuka.

vidyā - the limitation of knowledge

Vidyā tattva is the constriction of infinite knowledge to limited and imperfect knowledge. In the realm of pure tattvas, Śiva has direct access to any information about anything as the whole creation rests inside Him, like one's thoughts rest inside one's mind. Yet, to know everything at once is to know that which is inside everything and beyond. Acting as its source and the witness, Cit is said to be the basis for the whole creation, the ultimate Truth, which is the only truth one needs to know. Everything else is derived from it.
The limited being, unable to recollect his essence of Cit (infinite consciousness), operates in the realm of dual knowledge. His objects of knowledge are distinct/differentiated. This type of knowledge may become more and more subtle with study and practice, yet it is never able to describe Cit. The only way to rise to the level of non dual knowledge is through the act of Grace of Śiva. This point is specific to Kaśmir Śaivism.
One can prepare for the descent of grace by studying the sacred texts and purifying his body (physical and subtle). Even so, the Grace of Śiva will come only at Śiva's absolutely free will.

kalā - limitation in power

Kalā tattva – the limitation in power, is what makes one forget his original status of omnipotent being and assume the belief in the limitation of his power. This wrong belief acts as a chain limiting his spiritual progress. In this state, he identifies with his limited actions and bears the fruits of the karma they generate.
In order to recollect his true nature, of infinite consciousness and bliss – cit-ānanda, he needs a level of power unavailable to limited beings. Only by understanding this and accepting that it is Śiva that is acting, not his ego, will he become open to the Grace of Śiva, which is identical to a huge impulse of power that shatters duality and transports him directly into the realm of the pure tattvas.
By opening his heart to Śiva, thinking of himself as a channel of Śiva's energy, he creates a special status of "spiritual son". A spiritual son's actions are endowed with efficiency by virtue of a direct link between his heart and the infinite heart of Śiva.

māyā - the origin of illusion and duality

Māyā tattva is a very important stage in the process of manifestation. Mā means "to measure"; measurable means finite. From the infinite being that is Śiva, it creates the finite: the illusion of multiplicity, differentiation in multiple objects and limitation of objects. This process of manifestation is based on a series of multi-levelled reflections (pratibimba), creating a series of octaves or intervals. From pure consciousness and bliss Śiva-Śakti becomes vital and mental energy, and then matter. Thus the process of creation is a process of descent and Māyā is the tool by which this descent starts. On the other hand, māyā is the portal towards the rediscovery of Śiva - when it is seen in the context of the spiritual evolution.
In Kaśmir Śaivism māyā is not separated from Cit (supreme consciousness). This is a major difference between Kaśmir Śaivism and Advaita Vedānta. Thus, māyā is created by Ānanda Śakti, the operative energy of Śiva. In turn, māyā is the instrument of creation for the dual world.[42]
Even though Śiva assumes limitations in his role as a limited being jiva, Śiva never becomes a subject to any external limitations. Svātantrya, the absolute free will Śiva, is the sole cause for the apparition of duality [43] One cannot possibly understand at the level of dual existence, the motive why Śiva creates duality and the world with all its individual beings. It remains a profound mystery [44]
God, Consciousness in essence, like a magician, makes the whole ensemble of things which reside in Him appear outside Himself without any external cause, solely by the power of His will. Utpaladeva [45]

The effect of māyā is the sensation of division into interior and exterior, subject and object. In Kaśmir Śaivism it is considered that exterior objects and limited beings (jiva) are never separated from one's consciousness, or Śiva's consciousness.[45]

Śuddha tattvas

This group of five tattvas describe the Divine Consciousness. They appear by the projection of the five principal energies of the Absolute:
  • Cit śakti – divine consciousness – creates śiva tattva
  • Ānanda śakti – supreme bliss – creates śakti tattva
  • Icchā śakti – divine will – creates sadāśiva tattva
  • Jñāna śakti – divine power of knowledge – creates īśvara tattva
  • Kriyā śakti – power to manifest – creates śuddha vidyā tattva [46]
These five tattvas are called "pure" because they are the domain of pure subjectivity, non duality, where Śiva is clearly manifested and there is no impediment or limitation.
Even though there are five aspects of Śiva, they are always one, beyond any duality. Śiva remains always one, there are no five separate entities here.

śuddha māyā

Śuddha māyā means pure delusion. From here on, the limitations of māyā are existent and the dualistic knowledge shines. As per Swami Sivananada's book Tantra Yoga, Kundalini Yoga, Nada Yoga this is the 3rd manifestation.
Note: Placeholder Section. Needs to be elaborated

śuddha vidyā

Śuddha vidyā means pure knowledge. From here on, the limitations of māyā are inexistent and the pure non-dual knowledge shines.
When puruṣa, through the grace of Śiva reveals his essence of Atman, he gets first into the realm of śuddha vidyā tattva. But the realisation of identity with Śiva is not perfectly stable yet and his access to this state comes and goes. Here, the subjects thinks: "I am Śiva, the universe is real".
I-ness and This-ness are equally balanced and the experience of the universe gets more distinct.[47] It is a state of unity in diversity.
Śuddha vidyā acts as the instrumental function of sadāśiva tattva and īśvara tattva.

īśvara

The affirmation at the level of īśvara tattva is: "This universe is my expansion, not an illusion". It is associated to jñānana śakti, the divine power of knowledge.
Beings residing on this level are called mantreśvara (lords of the mantra). Here the world is explicitly detailed yet the creation hasn't yet begun. Thus, it is a state of divine existence where Śiva first projects the world in his mind, before creating it in reality.
The īśvara and sadāśiva tattvas are associated to the flux and reflux of the divine consciousness, Cit (Īśvara is unmeṣa - the expansion of the universe).

sadāśiva

The affirmation at this level is "I am this Universe". The accent here falls on "I". The focus is on the subject. Here Śiva manifests as sovereign will - ichhā śakti. Beings residing on this level are called mantra-maheśvara (great lords of the mantras). On sadāśiva tattva objectivity exists only in a very incipient form. Here the universe is said to be vague (asphuṭa) and dominated by the experience of "I-ness" (Kṣemaraja) [48]

śakti

The term Śakti comes from the root shak - to be capable of. Śakti is the operative (or kinetic) aspect of consciousness, its power to act and the cause of all motion in the universe.[49] Because Śakti brings everything into existence She is the feminine aspect of the universe in the cosmic couple Śiva-Śakti.
Śiva and Śakti tattva are inseparable and interdependent; Śiva is the interior aspect of consciousness and Śakti is the exterior [50] - they are united like fire and its capacity to burn. Any difference between them is just a matter of semantics. In another metaphor, Śiva is an infinite ocean and Śakti a wave on its surface. In a third metaphor, Śiva is a perfect mirror and Śakti is the image inside the mirror. All these analogies try to express the unity of Śiva and Śakti. Like the image cannot be separate from the mirror in which it exists, so Śiva and Śakti are but one reality.
On the level of Śakti tattva the experience of I-ness is pure and universal and there is no trace of the experience of This-ness. The top two tattvas (Śiva and Śakti) are said to be non manifested because they don't participate to the cycle of creation. They act only as a backdrop or canvas for the creation.
In the triad sat-cit-ananda, Śakti tattva is associated to ānanda - infinite bliss. Where Śakti is predominant, there is experience of bliss. In the pair Prakasa-Vimarsa, Śakti tattva is Vimarsa - the reflexive aspect of Śiva - that is - Śiva perceiving Himself (reflecting on his own nature). On account of it being dynamic and ever vibrating, Śakti is also known as spanda. Spanda is the fundamental vibration of consciousness that permeates the whole universe.
The will to create the universe appears first in Śakti tattva. Even though māyā is the actual instrument of creation, it relies in turn on Śakti for its power.

śiva

Śiva tattva is the transcendental consciousness, the canvas on which the whole creation is projected. Śiva tattva appears as Cit, the passive aspect of pure consciousness, non manifested, inactive in report with creation, the static center and substratum of all change.[49]
Another way to describe Śiva tattva is Prakasa - the uncreated light. It is the power of consciousness to shine without any external support. Prakasa is existence, as nothing that exists is different from it and there is nothing outside it. In Kaśmir Śaivism, from the Vedic expression Sat-cit-ananda, Sat (pure existence) is omitted on account that Cit (pure consciousness) contains it implicitly; thus the expression becomes just Cit-Ānanda.
Śiva tattva is the supreme subject. His nature is that of pure I-ness without any This-ness. His existence cannot be detected by an act of perception. Only on account of his effects can we postulate his existence.[49]
Śiva and Śakti tattvas are the plane where the supreme Self, Atman, exists. Beyond Śiva tattva there is only the Transcendence (Parama Śiva).

Differences from Sāṃkhya

The unique point of view of Kashmir Shaivism is expressed in the exposition of supplementary 11 tattvas compared to Veda or Sāṃkhya. They are māyā, niyati, kāla, rāga, vidyā, kalā, śuddha vidyā, īśvara, sadāśiva, 'śakti and śiva tattva. The rest of 25 tattva, which are common to Sāṃkhya, have in Kashmir Shaivism a slightly lesser position, as the categories of matter specific to the impure creation (dual creation).
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Monday, November 4, 2013

A History of The Kashmiri Pandits


Photo by Deepak Ganju
Myth and reality move together in the Saffron Valley of mystic splendor. The reclamation of land from Satisar created certain complications. The Saraswati River that flowed into the eastern Punjab, Rajasthan, Sind and other parts of Indian subcontinent suddenly got dried up. Geologists are of the opinion that all those streams, which fed Satisar and form the source of water for the Saraswati river, mostly ran underground [Now evidenced c.40,000 years ago]. Once the cleft materialized at Baramulla, the water of the Satisar flowed out in an opposite direction, leaving the Saraswati basin dry. The Aryan Saraswat Brahmans, who used to live on the banks of Saraswati river, migrated to the Kashmir Valley to continue their austerities. With the passage of time these people came to be known as ‘Bhattas’ in Kashmir. The word is derivative of Brahman. Now they are called the Kashmiri Pandits or the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir, who believe in the mystic combination of Shaivism, Kali Bhakti, Shakta worship and Tantra. The valley housed great Rishis - Seers - who were the source of all basic knowledge to advance a world civilisation on a spiritual rather than a material base.

History of the Kashmiri Pandits is the history of Kashmir since last more than 11,000 years. They are associated with its society, culture, civilization, customs, traditions, myths and realities and Kashmir was then the fountainhead of all civilisation, divine spirituality on this planet. However only a couple of millennia ago the impact of Buddhism and reactions by Brahmans gave rise to a long struggle between the two rival ideologies. Buddhism did flourish though in the north of the Valley during the reign of Durnadeo, Simhadeo, Sundersen, Ashoka and Kanishka. The great Buddhist council was held at Kanishpur in Kashmir during the rule of Kanishka and it was presided over by two eminent scholars --- Asvaghosha and Vasumitra. About 500 monks from different parts of the subcontinent attended the same. Nagarjuna , a Bodhisattva and the greatest philosopher of Buddhism, lived in Kashmir. During the reign of Abhimanu, a number of people were converted to Buddhism. It was first struggle of the Kashmiri Brahmans for their survival. A number of Kashmiri scholars – Kumarajiva (AD 384-417), Shakyashri Badhra (AD 405), Ratnavera, Shama Bhatta (5th Cen AD) and others went to China and Tibet to preach Buddhism. However, the Brahmans regained their supremacy during the reign of Nara I . The struggle between Buddhism and Brahmanism came to an end with the emergence of modern Hinduism. A period of comparative historical validity began with the establishment of the Karkuta rule in AD 627. Avantivarman (AD 855-833) is believed to be the first Vaishnavite ruler of Kashmir. During his rule there was a tremendous cultural development in the Valley. The great Shaiva philosophers of this period were Kayyatacharya, Somananda, Muktakantha Swamin, Shiva Swamin, Ananda Vardhana and Kallata.

The struggle between the Brahmans and other castes, such as Kayasthas, began during the reign of Shankara Varman. The authority of the Brahmans was broken and the sacred character of their citadels was violated. However, the Shaivite thought and philosophy flourished. Pradyumana Bhatta, Utpalacharya, Rama Kantha, Prajnarjuna, Lachaman Gupta and Mahadeva Bhatta have made a tremendous contribution to this philosophy. During the regime of Lohara dynasty, Kashmir came into contact with the Muslim invaders who attacked India. When Mahmud Ghazni annexed the Punjab, most of the tribes on the borders of Kashmir embraced Islam. At that time, the Valley was ruled by Sangram Raja (AD 1003-1028). Even after their conversion to Islam, these people continued to visit Kashmir – as traders, wanderers and even missionaries. There are historical evidences that some of these tribals settled in the Valley and made some venture into propagating their new religion.

Harsha (AD 1089-1101), was a man of extravagant habits and a jumble of contraries. He robbed the temple treasures and melt idols of gold and silver to tide over his financial crisis. Before him two other kings, Jalauka and Kalasa, employed the same approach of plundering the temples and melting the images of gold and silver to augment their depleted treasuries. Harsha also employed Muslim generals, who are called Turushkas by Kalhana, for the first time in the history of Kashmir. Now Muslims as a class appeared in the political field and began to consolidate its roots. Bhikshachara, a descendant of Harsha, organized a cavalry force mainly consisting of the Muslims. During the reign of Gopadeva (AD 1171-1180), the Brahmans consolidated their position. But the Lavanya tribe shattered their roots once again. The Damaras, Lavanyas and other tribes never allowed the Brahmans to monopolize. In the reign of Jassaka (AD 1180-1198), two Brahmans – Kshuksa and Bhima, endeavored to capture the throne. But it was the fear of Damaras or feudal lords that prevented them. Ramadeva (AD 1252-1273) humiliated those Brahmans who had helped him in his coronation. They conspired against him but could not succeed. A reign of terror, loot and plunder was let loose against them. Many Brahmans were killed and others crushed barbarously. This was the first direct assault against them in the history of Kashmir. To save themselves they cried “ Na Batoham” (I am not a Bhatta). The Kashmiri Pandits are even now taunted as Bhattas and Dalli Bhattas.

To counter the supremacy of the Brahmans, the rulers of Kashmir encouraged the influx of Muslims into the Valley. During the reign of Suhadeva (AD 1301-1320) many Muslim adventurers came to Kashmir. The chief among them was a Muslim missionary- Bulbul Shah. Two others were Shahmir from Swat and Rinchana from Tibet. Shahmir came in AD 1313 along with his numerous relations. Suhadeva granted him a jagir in a village near Baramulla. Ramachandra, the Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of Kashmir, employed Rinchana and granted him jagir in a village in the Lar Valley. These two adventurers were instrumental in the establishment of the Muslim rule in Kashmir. Another adventurer who received Suhadeva’s patronage was Lankar Chak.

Dulucha, a Tartar chief from Central Asia, invaded Kashmir with 60,000 strong horsemen. Suhadeva tried to induce him to retreat by paying him off a large sum of money. For this purpose he imposed heavy taxes even upon the Brahmans who had never before been taxed. But Dulucha refused to retreat and struck terror. He ravaged the Valley with fire and sword. Monstrous miseries were inflicted upon the people including the Brahmans. According to Baharistan – i -Shahi, “Dulucha and his soldiers killed everyone they could find . People who had fled to the hills and forests were pursued and captured. Men were killed, women and children were reduced to slavery and sold to the merchants of Khita (Turkistan), whom the invaders had brought with them. All the houses in the cities and the villages were burnt. The invaders ate as much of the corn and rice as they could . Whatever was left, they burnt and destroyed. In this way the whole of the Kashmir Valley was trampled under foot”. Suhadeva fled to Kishtwar, leaving the Kingdom to the cruel aggressors. Dulucha stayed here for eight months and took about 50,000 Brahmans with him as slaves. But all the troops and slaves perished while crossing the Devsar pass. It was a terrible experience for the legendary Kashmiri Pandits.

Dulucha went away from the Valley but left it haunted. The cursed people had lost all faith in their ruler- Suhadeva. Taking the advantage of the chaos and confusion, Rinchana- the refugee from Tibet, occupied the throne with the help of some chiefs . He killed his benefactor, Ramachandra, in the fort of Lar by treacherous means and married his daughter, Kota Rani.

Rinchana, a pseudo- Buddhist, wanted to get initiated into the Brahmanical fold to strengthen his political position. At that time, Shaivism was the most extensively practised religion in the Valley. So he called Sri Devaswami, the religious head of the Shaivas, to indoctrinate himself into the Hindu religion. Devaswami called a secret meeting of the prominent Pandits, who refused to accept Rinchana into Hinduism because of his low birth. Jonaraja says,” The King asked Devaswami to initiate him in the mantras of Shiva, but as he was Bhautta (Tibetian), Devaswami feared that the King was unworthy of such initiation and did not favour him”. This was a monstrous blunder on the part of Pandits, which turned the course of history. In fact, the Brahmans were not ready to share their privileges with an outsider. Thus deflected, Rinchana wanted to establish a uniform faith of warring sects and creeds in Kashmir with himself as its head. But Shahmir and Bulbul Shah manipulated his conversion to Islam. Ramachandra’s son, Ravanachandra, and many others also embraced Islam. A Muslim ruling class came into existence. In this way the Kashmiri Pandits were responsible for the destruction of their own ascendency and the ruin of their very existence. They are tremendously paying for it till today.

People of poorer families and subordinate castes were subdued into Islam by gradual methods. This newly established Muslim class slowly consolidated its position and employed various methods to propagate the new faith. However, the Brahmans put a brave front and resisted the tide. After the death of Rinchana (AD 1326), Udyanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was installed on the throne of Kashmir and Shahmir was appointed as Commander-in-Chief.

Achala, a Turkish chief, invaded Kashmir during the reign of Udyanadeva, laying waste the territories he passed through. The king fled to Tibet. Kota Rani - the queen, faced the invader, procured his death and saved the kingdom. In this operation , Shahmir played the dominant role. Jonaraja says, “Strange that this believer in Allah became the saviour of the people. As a dried up river allows men to cross it and gives them shelter on its banks, even so this believer in Allah, calm and active, protected the terrified subjects.” Shahmir’s influence increased tremendously and he further strengthened his position by entering into matrimonial relations with the powerful nobles in Kashmir. A subversive struggle was born between the tolerant Hinduism and the militant Islam.


In AD 1339, after defeating Kota Rain by a foul strategem and procuring her death, Shahmir ascended the throne of Kashmir under the name of Sultan Shamas-ud-Din (The Light of the Religion - Islam). He got khutaba read and the coins struck to his name. Islam became the court religion. Shahmir became the legitimate author and architect of Muslim rule in Kashmir. With the establishment of the new regime Muslim missionaries, preachers, sayyids and saints penetrated into the Valley. Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din, Sayyid Taj-ud-Din, Sayyid Hussain Simnani, Sayyid Masud and Sayyid Yusuf came to Kashmir to avoid the intended massacre by Timur. Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (Shah Hamadan) entered Kashmir with 700 sayyids; and, his son, Mir Muhammad Hamadani, with 300 more. They endured in the Valley under royal protection and disseminated the message of Islam. This naturally caused animosity among the Brahmans and resulted in frail rebellion during the reign of Shihab-ud-Din (AD 1354-1373). In order to break the upheaval among the Hindus and to make them prostrate, the Sultan turned his attention towards their temples. All the temples in Srinagar, including the one at Bijbehara, were wrecked to terrorize the poor Kashmiri Pandits. It seems that by this time, the sultans of Kashmir were perfectly islamized as a result of their contacts, interactions and intercourses with the sayyids. These sayyids came here as absconders in search of safe harbours, but manoeuvered the events for their own cause and fanatic iconoclastic zeal. The Hindus began to feel deserted and alienated in their own land. To consolidate their rule, sultans institutionalized the “policy of extermination” to eradicate all traces of Hinduism in any form. However, the Kashmiri Pandits stuck to their own religion and traditions, ignoring the atrocities, barbarism and cruelties of the privileged ruling class. But there were many from other castes who, either by conviction or in order to gain royal favour, embraced Islam. These new converts were looked down upon by the Kashmiri Pandits as traitorous and treacherous, with no loyalty for time-honored values. This gave rise to a new class rivalry. Suha Bhatt, who after embracing Islam took the name of Saif-ud-Din, became the leader of the fresh converts during the reign of Sikandar (AD 1389-1413).

Sikandar- the Butshikan, was bigoted with fanatic religious zeal to spread Islam in the entire Valley. This fanaticism was stimulated by Mir Muhammad Hamadani. Suha Bhatt - the convert, was appointed Prime Minister by Sikandar and both hatched a deadly conspiracy to persecute the Hindus and enforce upon the Nizam-i-Mustaffa. Jonaraja says, “ The Sultan forgot his kingly duties and took delight day and night in breaking images … He broke images of Martanda, Vishaya, Ishana, Chakrabrit and Tripureshvara …… There was no city, no town, no village, no wood where Turushka left the temples of the gods unbroken.” According to Hassan (History of Kashmir), “ This country possessed from the times of Hindu rajas many temples which were like the wonders of the world. Their workmanship was so fine and delicate that one found himself bewildered at their sight. Sikandar, goaded by feelings of bigotry, destroyed them and levelled them with the earth and with the material built many mosques and khanqahs. In the first instance he turned his attention towards the great Martand temple built by Ramdev (the temple was rebuilt by King Lalitaditya, AD 724-760) on Mattan Kareva. For one year he tried to demolish it, but failed. At last in sheer dismay, he dug out stones from its base and having stored enough wood in their place, set fire to it. The gold gilt paintings on its walls were totally destroyed and the walls surrounding its premises were demolished. Its ruins even now strike wonder in men’s minds. At Bijbehara, three hundred temples including the famous Vijiveshwara temple, which was partly damaged by Shihab-ud-Din, were destroyed. With the material of Vijiveshwara temple, a mosque was built and on its site a khanqah, which is even now known as Vijiveshwara Khanqah.” The stones and bricks which once configurated a marvelous and splendid temple or monastery, now hold up mosques. Hassan further adds, “ Sikandar meted out greatest oppression to the Hindus. It was notified in the Valley that if a Hindu does not become a Muslim, he must leave the country or be killed. As a result some of the Hindus fled away, some accepted Islam and many Brahmans consented to be killed and gave their lives. It is said that Sikandar collected, by these methods, six maunds of sacred thread form Hindu converts and burnt them. Mir Muhammad Hamadani, who was a witness of all this vicious brutality, barbarism and vandalism, at last advised him to desist from the slaughter of Brahmans and told him to impose jazia (religious tax) instead of death upon them. All the Hindu books of learning were collected and thrown into Dal Lake and were buried beneath stones and earth.” Sikandar issued orders that no man should wear the tilak mark on his forehead and no woman be allowed to perform sati. He also insisted on breaking and melting of all the gold and silver idols of gods and coin the metal into money. An attempt was made to destroy the caste of the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans by force and those who resisted were subject to heavy fines. Farishta says, “ Many of the Brahmans, rather than abandon their religion or their county, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped the evil of banishment by becoming Muhammedans”. To strictly enforce the Nizam-i-Mustaffa, Sikandar established the office of Shaikh-ul-Islam.

According to W.R. Lawrence, the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir were given three choices-death, conversion or exile. “Many fled, some were converted and many were killed, and it is said that this thorough monarch (Sikandar) burnt seven maunds of sacred threads of the murdered Brahmans”. As for the statements of Hassan and Lawrence, six maunds of sacred threads of converts and seven maunds of murdered Pandits were burnt. The number of people, to whom these thirteen maunds of sacred threads belonged, might have been tremendously colossal. A mammoth number of the Saraswat Pandits also went into exile, causing the first disastrous mass exodus of the community. When Suha Bhatt- the convert, came to know that many Brahmans were leaving Kashmir, he tried to check their exodus and ordered the frontier guards not to allow any one to cross the borders. The unfortunate Pandits caught while crossing the border were awarded severe punishments. Even the converts were required to pay jazia as they were suspected of secretly clinging to their old religion.

Not only Sikandar- the Butshikan, but Suha Bhatta – the convert, also was responsible for this barbarous, murderous and cruel approach towards the mythical Kashmiri Pandits. Jonaraja says, “ Suha Bhatta- the convert, after demolishing the temples felt the satisfaction, and with the help of sayyids, ulema and newly converts tried to destroy the caste of the people… the illustrious Brahmans declared that they would die rather than lose their caste and religion, and Suha Bhatta - the convert, subjected them to a heavy fine, jazia, because they held to their caste and religion.” There is no parallel of this religious persecution in the history of the subcontinent.

Ali Shah - (AD 1413-1430), son of Sikandar- the Butshikan, during his short rule of six years, carried on his father’s 24-year tyrant reign with homicides, conversions, tyranny and enforced jazia. Suha Bhatta – the convert, who retained the prime ministership continued his earlier crimes and atrocities against the Kashmiri Pandits. Jonaraja gives a graphic account of the plight of the illustrious Kashmiri Pandits in the draconian reign of Ali Shah. He says,” Suha Bhatta- the convert, passed the limit by levying fine, jazia, on the twice - born. This evil-minded man forbade ceremonies and processions on the new moon. He became envious that the Brahmans who had become fearless would keep up their caste by going over to foreign countries, he therefore ordered posting of squads on the roads, not to allow passage to any one without a passport. Then as the fisherman torments fish, so this low born man tormented the twice-born in this country. The legendary Brahmans burnt themselves in the flaming fire through fear of conversion. Some Brahmans killed themselves by taking poison, some by the rope and others by drowning themselves. Others again by falling from a precipice. The country was contaminated by hatred and the king’s favourites could not prevent one in a thousand from committing suicide …. A multitude of celebrated Brahmans, who prided in their caste, fled from the country through bye-roads as the main roads were closed. Even as men depart from this world, so did the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir flee to foreign countries. The difficult countries through which they passed, the scanty food, painful illness and the torments of hell during life time removed from the minds of the Kashmiri Pandits the fears of hell. Oppressed by various calamities such as encounter with the enemy, fear of snakes, fierce heat and scanty food; many Brahmans perished on the way and thus obtained salvation.” This was the second miserable mass exodus of the Kashmiri Pandits. Jonaraja calls it “ Chandh-Dandh” - violent, cruel, brutal and horrible punishment, for the abandoned and vulnerable Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir. History repeated itself again in AD 1989-1990.

The brutal religious persecution of the Kashmiri Pandits has been borne testimony to by almost all the Muslim historians. Hassan, Fauq and Nizam – ud – Din have condemned these excesses in unscathing terms. It was the reign of terror and homicide. The majority of the Hindus were converted forcibly and a large number had left the Valley. Yet many more were passing their days in the most deplorable conditions only on payment of jazia. The allowances of the Brahman academicians were stopped to destroy the ancient learning, literature, education, art and culture. These enlightened intellectuals had to move from door to door for food, like dogs. One can’t imagine a higher level of mental torture!

The Brahmans, even after paying jazia, could not openly declare themselves as Hindus nor could they apply tilak on their foreheads. Neither could they pray in their temples or perform any religious ceremony. Even then they did not forget their past and rich tradition. As the custodians of their extraordinary cultural heritage, they wrote the illuminating treatises on the stupendous Kashmir Shaivism, colossal literature, splendid art, marvelous music, grammar and medicine.

Sultan Zainul Abidin-the Budshah (Great Monarch), ruled Kashmir from AD 1420 to 1460. The son of Sultan Sikandar – the Butshikan, and the brother of Sultan Ali Shah- the tyrant, Zainul Abidin followed the policy of tolerance, endurance, patience, sympathy and broad mindedness. He recalled the Kashmiri Pandits who had left the Valley during the rule of Sikandar and Ali Shah. Jazia was abolished and the Brahmans were given their earlier positions in administration. Demolished temples were rebuilt and new ones constructed. Two temples were built by Zainul Abidin at Ishbar, Srinagar. The Sultan also participated in the Hindu festivals. A large number of houses were built for the widows of the Brahmans who had suffered during the reign of terror. Zainul Abidin stopped the killing of cows, restricted the eating of beef and catching of fish in the sacred springs of the Hindus. Even the personal law as laid down in the Shastras was adopted for the Hindus. The legenday Kashmiri Pandits were resurrected and resuscitated. Ferguson observes that indeed history has very few examples where the policy of a father was so completely reversed by the son. Even the Mughal monarch, Akbar - the great , capitalized on the religious policy of Zainul Abidin. But the conservative and dogmatic Muslims reacted very sharply to this policy of toleration and mutual coexistence . According to Mulla Bahauddin, “ The Sultan reimported practices of infidels which had once become extinct”.

But the honey-moon of the Kashmiri Pandits proved very brief. During the reign of Haider Shah (AD 1470-1472) - the prodigal son of the great Zainul Abidin, Kashmiri Pandits once again suffered tremendously. Under the evil influence of Purni- the Hindu barber, Haider Shah adopted various corrupt and cruel practices against the Saraswat Brahmans. The repression was so terrible that the tolerant Pandits lost their cool. Hassan says, “ the patience of the Pandits having reached the breaking point, they rose in a body and set fire to some mosques which were built with the material of the Hindu temples once demolished by Sikandar. The rising was quelled by the sword; many more Pandits were drowned in rivers; and, loot and plunder was practiced with unbridled licence.” Srivara also illustrates the cruel and inhuman treatment given to the mythical Kashmiri Saraswat Brahmans, “ many Pandits struggled and threw themselves in river Vitasta to be drowned there. The arms and noses of many people were cut off, even of those Brahmans who were king’s servants.” Ravage and arson of the sacred places continued during the indifferent rule of Hassan Khan (AD 1476-1487), when the real authority was with the gang of three persons- Shams Chak, Shringhar Raina and Musa Raina. The pressure exerted on the illustrious Kashmiri Pandits was so barbarous that, in order to save themselves from merciless brutality, some of them gave up their caste and screamed – “ I am not a Bhatta, I am not a Bhatta” ( I am not a Hindu). They went in strict seclusion to avoid any argument or controversy.

Mir Shams-ud-Din Iraqi, who visited the Saffron Valley twice in AD 1477 and 1496, was the founder of Nurbakhshiya order (Shia sect) in Kashmir. His mission was the vigorous propagation of his faith. So, not contented with peaceful preachings, violent methods were employed. In this adventure , Iraqi was helped by the homicidal creature and most dreaded tyrant- Malik Musa Raina, a convertee, whose original name was Soma Chandra. Not only the poor vulnerable Brahmans, but the Sunni Muslims were also violently converted to Shia sect by murderous techniques. This dogmatic fanaticism even crippled the Sunni ruler of Kashmir, Fateh Shah (AD 1510-1517). A khanqah was built at Zadibal (Srinagar) by Iraqi, which became the nucleus of Shia concentration.

Kashmiri Pandits suffered ferociously under the instructions of Shams-ud-Din Iraqi and Musa Raina. About 24,000 of them were forcibly converted to Shia sect of Islam. Iraqi had even issued orders that everyday about 1500 to 2000 Brahmans be brought to his doorsteps, remove their sacred threads, administer Kalima to them, circumcise them and make them eat beef. These decrees were ferociously and brutally carried out. The Hindu religious scriptures from 7th century AD onwards and about 18 magnificent temples were destroyed, property confiscated and ladies abused. Thousands of Brahmans killed themselves to evade this horrific barbarism and thousands migrated to other places, resulting in their third tragic mass exodus from the Saffron Valley of Kashmir. Those who stayed behind were not only forced to pay jazia, but their noses and ears were chopped off. To escape the tremendous pain and agony, they cried. “I am not a Hindu.” After Kashmir , the next destination of Iraqi for war against so-called infidelity was Kargil. It is now a Shia –dominated area and there are frequent sectarian clashes between them and the Buddhists.

In AD 1519, about ten thousand Kashmiri Pandits died during pilgrimage to Harmukh Ganga, where they had gone to immerse the ashes of those eight hundred Hindus who had been massacred during Ashura a year before. Poet-historian Suka says about this cataclysm, “ Ganga was oppressed with hunger, as it was after a long time that she had devoured bones; she surely devoured the men also who carried the bones.” It was after a gap of many years that the people were allowed to go on a pilgrimage to Harmukh lake, which ended in the most devastating tragedy.

Qazi Chak, the founder of Chak rule in Kashmir (AD 1553-1586), carried on ferocious religious policy and made conversion of many Hindus to Shia sect of Islam. According to Suka, one thousand cows were used to be killed everyday without any opposition under the orders of the Chak rulers, who were Shias, just to injure the religious sentiments of the Kashmiri Pandits. These celebrated and highly educated Aryan Saraswat Brahmans were made the objects of laughter and reproach. They were publically taunted, abused and humiliated. The last Chak ruler, Yaqub Chak, had a bigoted zeal for the propagation of Shia sect and planned mass conversion of the Hindus. However, he could not administer his criminal designs because of the Mughal annexation.

Akbar was tremendously influenced by the amazing moral supremacy of the Kashmiri Pandits. Abul Fazl records in Ain-i-Akbari, “ the most respectable class in this country (Kashmir) is that of the Pandits, who, notwithstanding their need for freedom from the bonds of tradition and custom, are the true worshippers of God. They do not loosen their tongue of calumny against those not of their faith, nor beg, nor importune. They employ themselves in planting fruit trees and are generally a source of inspiration for others”. The great Mughal Emperor abolished jazia and other unjust taxes imposed upon the Hindus. He also evinced great interest in the rehabilitation of the Pandits. Suka says, “ The Emperor announced that he would without delay reward those who would respect the Brahmans in Kashmir and that he would instantly pull down the houses of those who would demand the annual tribute from them.” The greatness of Akbar lies in his magnificent and fascinating policy of religious tolerance. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were not so tolerant. But their religious enthusiasm cannot be termed as fanatic. During this period, the Brahmans could perform their religious ceremonies after paying some tribute. But the whole scenario changed with the accession of Aurangzeb to the throne. With his bigoted fanatic and dogmatic approach, the Kashmiri Pandits were once again made vulnerable. Iftkar Khan, the Mughal governor of Kashmir during the reign of Aurangzeb, brutally tyrannized over the Brahmans to such an extent that they approached Guru Teg Bhahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, at Anandpur in Punjab and solicited his personal intervention with the Emperor. This ultimately led to the Guru’s martyrdom and made Guru Gobid Singh to create the Khalsa to fight the oppressors . Muzaffer Khan, Nassar Khan and Ibrahim Khan were other governors of Aurangzeb who ferociously terrorized the Kashmiri Pandits. These celebrated scapegoats were once again forced to migrate from the land of their origin. It was the fourth disastrous mass exodus of the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans from Kashmir.

During the rule of later Mughals, Kashmir witnessed the outbreak of the worst kind of religious intolerance. In AD 1720, Mullah Abdul Nabi, also called Muhat Khan, a non-resident Kashmiri Muslim, was appointed as Shaikhul Islam . In order to assert his religious authority, he asked the Deputy Governor, Mir Ahmed Khan , to start a campaign of persecution of the Kafirs (infidels) - as the Kashmiri Pandits were called. In order to satisfy his satanic ego, the Mulla issued six commandments:


  • No Hindu should ride a horse, nor should a Hindu wear a shoe;
  • That they should not wear Jama (Mughal costume);
  • That they should move bare arms;
  • That they should not visit any garden;
  • That they should not have tilak mark on their foreheads;
  • That their children should not receive any education.
But Ahmed Khan refused to execute the mischievous decree. The Mullah then excited his followers against the Kashmiri Pandits. He established his seat in a mosque, assumed the duties of the administrator under the title of Dindar Khan and let loose the reign of terror. The Hindus were wickedly tormented, their houses burnt and property looted. Hundreds of Brahmans were killed, prostrated, maimed and humiliated. They began to run away in large numbers and hide themselves in mountainous terrain. This was the fifth dreadful mass exodus of the legendary Kashmiri Pandits from their mystic motherland. Those who remained behind lived in the most horrific and terrible conditions generated by the Mullah and his gang. But soon he was assassinated by his rivals and his son, Sharif-ud-Din, become the new Shaikhul-Islam. The son improved upon the brutal methods of his father and inflicted most barbaric, cruel and inhuman tortures upon the vulnerable Brahmans. The plight of the Kashmiri Pandits during this period became tremendously miserable and tragic.

The Afghan rule in Kashmir (AD 1753-1819) was a period of cruelty, homicide and anarchy. W.R. Lawrence calls it the “reign of brutal tyranny.” The barbarous Afghans employed every wild, inhuman, primitive, ferocious, cruel and brutal method to suppress the Kashmiri Brahmans. A pitcher filled with ordure was placed on the head of a Pandit and stones were pelt on it, till it broke and the unfortunate Brahman become wet with filth. Their brutality and atrocity crossed the extreme limits when Hindus were tied up in grass sacks, two and two, and drowned in the Dal Lake. The victimized Hindu were forced to flee the country or were killed or converted to Islam. There was horrible mass exodus of the Kashmiri Pandits, sixth one, to far away places like Delhi, Allahabad, etc. Many covered the long distances on foot.

Hindu parents destroyed the beauty of their daughters by shaving their heads or cutting their noses and ears to save them from degradation. Any Muslim could jump on the back of a Pandit and take a ride. Mir Hazar - an Afghan governor, used leather bags instead of grass sacks for the drowning of Brahmans. Turbans and shoes were forbidden for them. The Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir were also forced to grow beards and tilak was interdicted. The Afghans are now only remembered for their barbarity, brutality, ferocity, tyranny and cruelty. They thought no more of cutting of heads than of plucking a flower.

The Shahmirs, Chaks, Mughals and homicidal Afghans tore the fabric of society in Kashmir and left deep scars on it. When the Afghan oppression became intolerable, the Pandits turned with hope to the rising power of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. But they were suspected. The Afghan governor, Azim Khan, confiscated their jagirs and imposed jazia on them. Eminent Pandits were brutally killed, humiliated and their authority was snatched. Nur Shah Diwani - a cruel Muslim official who was in charge of revenue collection, hatched a conspiracy in league with Azim Khan to eliminate the distinguished Kashmiri Brahmans. But this evil manoeuvre was exposed and a galaxy of Pandits saved. Pandit Sahajram, the Diwan, played a prominent role in the rescue operation.

Azim Khan had appointed Sukhram Safaya, Mirza Pandit and Birbal Dhar as revenue collectors. Birbal Dhar could not collect the required amount due to failure of crops. The atrocious Afghan governor browbeated Pandit Birbal to make the payment of one lac rupees. Rowdy and boisterous soldiers were send to threaten him and other Pandits. Sensing the Afghan tsunami, distinguished Kashmiri Pandits called a backstairs meeting in which it was resolved to invite Ranjit Singh for the conquest of Kashmir and salvation of the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans. Accordingly Birbal Dhar and his minor son, Raja Kak Dhar, secretly left for Lahore with a petition signed by the prominent Kashmiri Pandits through which as invitation was extended to Ranjit Singh to take over the Valley. When Azim Khan came to know about these developments, he sent his soldiers to nab Birbal Dhar and teach him a lesson. But when these bandits met with no success, the cruel governor turned his guns towards the wife and daughter-in-law of Birbal Dhar . Both the ladies had taken shelter in the house of a trustworthy Muslim, Qadus Gojwari. Azim Khan asked Pandit Basa Kak to hunt down the innocent ladies. Basa Kak knew about the retreat of ladies but did not disclose it even after monstrous tortures and oppressive penalties. At last his abdomen was ripped open in the most barbarous manner and the dead body discredited - the most unfortunate and brutal crime against humanity in the civilized world. The poor ladies were also captured . Birbal Dhar’s wife committed suicide by swallowing a piece of diamond. The younger lady was violently converted to Islam and handed over to an Afghan noble, who carried her to Kabul.

Nervous to the marrow of his bones and crazy with rage, Azim Khan tormented all those Kashmiri Brahmans whom he suspected to be in league with Birbal Dhar. Prominent Pandits were detained in a concentration camp at Nishat Garden and ferociously tortured. But on learning about the Sikh advances towards Kashmir, he lost all nerve and solicited instruction from Pandit Sahajram Dhar. The illustrious Pandit advised him to sent off his ladies folk to Kabul. It was the only way to save them from the ignominious treatment. Sahajram himself escorted the ladies to Kabul and saved them from disastrous shame. Azim Khan himself ran away from the Valley, leaving the administration into the hands of his brother, Jabbar Khan. However, atrocious Afghans were crushed and the Sikhs annexed Kashmir. Some extremist Sikhs, including Phul Singh, endeavoured to knock down the mosque of Shah Hamadan. But celebrated Birbal Dhar, at a considerable risk to his own life, made them desist from this action. According to GMD Sufi, “ It is to the lasting credit of Birbal Dhar that when a deputation of Muslims headed by Sayyid Hasan Shah Qadiri Khanyari approached him to dissuade the Sikhs from the destruction of the Khanqah, he moved in the matter, used his influence and saved this historical structure from vandalism.” It reveals the true personality and character of a distinguished Kashmiri Pandit.

During the Sikh rule in Kashmir, AD 1819-1846, the celebrated Pandits reclaimed their past glory and magnificence. They claimed back the prominent places of trust and honour. Cow slaughter was banned, temples renovated and the earlier wrongs rectified. The legendary Kashmiri Pandits received a healing touch after centuries of barbarity, ferocity and tyranny. But by the time, the Sikhs conquered Kashmir in AD 1819, about nine-tenths of the population had become the followers of Islam. Out of the 10% Hindu population, a large number had migrated to the Punjab and other provinces. The Pandits in general belonged to the middle class while the upper and lower classes were dominated by the Muslims.

With the formation of Jammu and Kashmir State; and, establishment of the Dogra rule in 1846, Kashmiri Pandits were imperceptibly elbowed to the background. Administrators and officials were deputed from Jammu region. Though they enjoyed comprehensive religious freedom and social emancipation, political rights of the Kashmiri Brahmans were confined. On certain occasions, they even became victims of intrigue and suspicions. The vicious communal forces also turned their wrath against them. During the communal disturbances of July 1931, shops and houses belonging to the Kashmiri Brahmans were not only looted but also burnt. Three innocent Hindus lost their lives. This communalism in the state politics aggravated and magnified with the passage of time . It was fed for years with vicious communal propaganda and brainwashing.

After independence and accession of Jammu & Kashmir state to India, Kashmiri Pandits were pushed back to the uncultured Afghan era. They were given the sugarcoated dozes of poisonous toxics. Article 370 of Indian constitution just reduced them to cipher and liquidated their population. Under the pretext of economic reforms, their jagirs (properties) were confiscated and distributed among the Muslim peasants. The administration of Shaikh Abdullah adopted malicious and pernicious approach towards the Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir. They were taunted on one excuse or the other. Hindu temples were desecrated, looted and plundered. Minor girls of the community were forced to embrace Islam and marry the Muslim youth.

Shaikh Abdullah tried to create “ Shaikhdom” for his dynastic rule in Kashmir. But his dreams were shattered when he was arrested in 1953 for anti-national activities. In 1958, he was released but detained again after three months under the Kashmir conspiracy case. However, the case was withdrawn in 1964 because of political reasons. But he was arrested again in May 1965 for his subversive activities and released in January 1968. Again, in January 1971, a ban was imposed forbidding him to enter the Jammu Kashmir state. This restriction was lifted in 1972.

During 1953-1974 Shaikh Abdullah characterized India as an imperialist power endeavouring to subjugate the people of Kashmir. He asserted that the accession of Kashmir with India was his greatest blunder for which history will never forgive him. He also demanded the right of self determination for the people of Muslim – dominated Kashmir, but ignored the Hindu- dominated Jammu and Buddhist- dominated Ladakh regions. The sophist Shaikh advocated plebiscite and unconditional withdrawal of Indian army from the Saffron Valley. He also campaigned against the import of food grains from India and asked people to eat potatoes grown in Kashmir. For such arguments, Shaikh Abdullah was nick named as “Aaloo Bab” --- Feeder of Potatoes. He made emotional solicitations that after death his body should not be buried in the subjugated Valley, but immersed into the sacred waters of Arabian sea. However, today his magnificent tomb stands on the banks of beautiful Dal Lake in Srinagar and is guarded by the Indian security personnel. By such gratuitous and conflicting statement, his secular credentials evaporated into thin air. The prospect of disloyalty and sedition began to haunt the Saffron Valley. Kashmiriyat switched over to political vandalism and bigoted fundamentalism. Shaikh Abdullah desperately held Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, a Kashmiri Pandit, responsible for the shattering of his malevolent dreams in 1953. The mortified Shaikh ambiguously decided to retaliate against the whole Pandit community in Kashmir. In vindictiveness, he instigated his associated that while making a choice between a Kashmiri Pandit and dreaded cobra, kill the Pandit first. A vicious campaign of terror was launched against the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir. They were refused entry to government jobs and institutions of higher learning. Besides hurling strong statement against the Government of India and Kashmiri Pandits, the Shaikh derided that the whole lot of Indian army cannot save the Hindus in Kashmir against the malevolence of Muslims. Farooq Abdullah also employed the same approach towards the crumbled Pandits when his brother-in-law, Gulshah, seized the chief ministership in 1984.The reactionary leaders- Afzal Beg, Maulvi Farooq, Mohi-ud-Din Kara and Maulana Masoodi; ignored the very existence of Kashmiri Pandits during their political adventurism. The Kashmiri Pandits were made to pay for every move on the political chessboard in Kashmir because they represented the pseudo-secularism, incognito- socialism and flowering- democracy of India. They were scolded and emotionally hurt in the Afghan fashion.

But then the whole political scenario in Kashmir took a dramatic turn in 1974, when Indira-Shaikh accord was signed by virtue of which the Shaikh became the Chief Minister of the State after the lapse of 22 years. Ignoring the great expectations he had created among the people in Kashmir and his vigorous campaign for plebiscite, the sophist Shaikh began to speak the language of Indian nationalism, democracy, socialism and secularism. The slogans of plebiscite, self-determination and independent Kashmir melted away. But the Hate- India virus, infused by him into the blood of the Muslim youth in Kashmir, was exploited by other corrupt self-styled politicians for their own interests from time to time. A vacuum was created because the people were betrayed disillusioned, politically raped and left in wilderness by their own leaders.

Omkarnath Ganjoo, who established the Index Branch of the Jammu & Kashmir Criminal Investigation Department under the directions of Union Home Ministry in early 1960 and managed the same upto 1986, established a powerful network in the State. He collected detailed information about the seditious, subversive and treasonous persons and sent the detailed dispatches to the government from time to time . He also excavated the nefarious designs of ISI- the Pak Intelligence Agency, and informed the concerned authorities. But the state as well as the central administration lacked the determination and resolution to act.

The programmes and policies of Bakshi, Sadiq, Qasim, Farooq and Gulshah were also damaging for the Kashmiri Pandits. They were continuously haunted by antagonistic, hostile and rebellious elements. Mufti Syed is even believed to be responsible for the anti-Hindu communal riots of 1986, when cows were slaughtered and temples destroyed in Anantnag district. From 1947-1986 about four lac Kashmiri Pandits silently migrated from Kashmir. Hypocritical atrocities and criminal ignorances of political leaders were responsible for these development. Pakistan, to avenge the defeat of Bangladesh, blatantly sponsored the violence and terrorism in the Valley, resulting in the turmoil of 1989-90. The then celebrated governor of Jammu and Kashmir, Jagmohan, wrote a detailed letter to the former Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi , on April 21,1990, endorsing the alarming signals earliest transmitted by discerning Omkarnath Ganjoo. But Indian leadership was still unconcerned.

“Aay Zalimu, Aay Kafiroo,
Kashmir Hamara Choudh Dou”

Bharat Kay Aiwanu Ko
Aag Lagado, Aag Lagado”

The final assault on the Kashmiri Pandits started with these slogans. Terrorists from Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, Sudan and even Saudi Arabia penetrated into the Saffron Valley. Brutal, wild and barbarous techniques were employed to hound and kill the Aryan Saraswat Brahmans of Kashmir. Even the helpless ladies were not spared. Sarla Bhat, a nurse in Soura Medical Institute, was abducted on 19th April, 1990, by JKLF militants who repeatedly gang-raped her and eventually killed her on 25th April. Girja Tikoo, a teacher from Bandipur, was kidnapped, raped and eventually shred to pieces by a saw mill on 4th June, 1990. Bimla Braroo from the Nai Sarak, Srinagar, who along with her daughter, Archana, was raped in the presence of her husband, Sohanlal, before all the three were killed on 31st March, 1992. There are dozens of such brutal instances. Even the Afghans will be feeling sorry in their graves for the sanatic holocaust of the legendary Kashmiri Pandits.

The barbarous murder of hundreds of innocent Brahmans of Kashmir caused their seventh and final agonizing mass exodus from the Valley. This was the final knock down of ethnic cleansing and genocide of the Kashmiri Pandits. The mass massacres at Sangrampora (1997), Udhampore (1997), Prankot (1998), Wandhama (1998) and Nadimarg (2003) were the follow up cleansing operations. Pandits in Kashmir dwindled from 10% in 1947 to fewer than 5% in 1989 and to less than 1% today. The pretended world bodies, contaminated human rights organizations, pseudo-secularists, self-styled leaders, so-called policy makers, tainted political parties and slack bureaucracy have failed to express serious concern at this great human tragedy. Danse macabre is going on. During 1990-2005, the security forces seized around 30,000 assault rifles, over 15,000 pistols, more than 20,000 kg explosives, about 2000 UMGs and RPGs , from terrorists. In the barbarous turmoil about 45,000 persons including the Kashmiri Pandits, nationalistic Muslims and Sikhs have been killed. However the government is keen to provide a healing touch to militants. But the legendary Kashmiri Pandits, who were virtually exterminated from the Valley, have not even received the displaced status since the few remaining live like refugees in their motherland India.
*- Dr. Satish Ganjoo was born on May 1, 1956, to Shri Omkarnath Ganjoo and Smt Sheela Ganjoo in the Saffron Valley of Kashmir. He obtained the coveted academic degrees of M.Phil (1983) and Ph.D (1987) in Modern History and International Relations from the University of Kashmir. He held the distinguished faculty positions in various colleges in Kashmir. Dr. Ganjoo developed the excellent potential for research and published a number of books on diverse topics of history, politics, international relations and Islamic studies. Besides Dr. Ganjoo was involved in different interdisciplinary research projects, participated in several seminars and wrote about sixteen research papers. Presently working as Senior Faculty Member at the Post Graduate Dept. of History, Ramgarhia College Phagwra (India)        posted by........................vipul  koul
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Sunday, October 20, 2013

Sri Hanuman Prasad Poddar - Aakhon Mein Shyam Sama Jaaye

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Sri Hanuman Prasad Poddar - Aakhon Mein Shyam Sama Jaaye

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Sri Hanuman Prasad Poddar - 40 No 20 Side A pravachan bhaiji krishna bal...

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Wednesday, October 16, 2013

Patal Bhubaneswar

Patal BhubaneswarCave Temple at Patal Bhubaneswar is one of the main attractions of Kumaon region. Located in Pithoragarh district this Cave is open from sunrise to sunset. It will take approximately one and half hour to visit the cave temple and return. Inside the cave it will take nearly 30 to 45 minutes. From parking area you have to travel nearly 100 meters to reach the entrance of the cave. This cave is one of the protected monument of Govt of India. Before entering into the caves tourist have to remove shoe and shocks. Camera and mobile phones are not allowed inside the cave and they are to be deposited at the entrance. Before entering into the cave full address of the tourist are to be entered in a register. Nominal entry fee is charged, it was Rs 90 for four persons. One of the priest will guide you and will travel with you into the cave.

There is lighting arrangements with backup generator facility to illuminate this total dark cave. However your guide cum priest will carry one torch light to show you various points inside the cave.

Entry and exit to cave is regulated as same narrow path is used in both ways. During our visit we found only two groups inside cave and when we came out after nearly forty minutes another group was preparing to enter into the cave. We were wondering how the temple management committee must be managing in holy days when local devotees will be joining the tourist to visit this cave.

Cave Temple at Patal BhubaneswarYou have to decent nearly four floors down through a narrow path holding chains. The width of the path at some places reduces to around half a meter and you have to almost sit and slide down through this circular sloppy ( 45 degree downward ) path. It is better not to use sari or white dresses as they are likely to get dirty as you will be almost crawling while going down and coming up. Better to use jean paints and fold it one round from bottom. After the entrance inside the cave it is high enough and you can freely stand and carefully walk as floor will be little slippery and muddy inside. After coming out you can wash your foot. If you are aware of Hindu Mythological stories ( Mahavarat , Ramayan etc ) then your guide cum priest will show you resemblance of all stories and events on the formations of stalactites and stalagmites. There are white formation looks like twisted hair ( jata ) of Lord Shiva holding Ganga inside it. After passing through the narrow entry path first you will see the shape of a snake known in Hindu Purans as Sesnag the snake which holds the earth. There are several Shiva lingas and status inside the cave. Some of the narrow paths are blocked and tourists are not allowed to explore.

In the Manas Khand of Skand Puran there is note about this cave. The local priest is from the Plane area of Uttarparadesh and known as Bhandaries. Long back their previous generations were specially bought here by king to perform regular Puja inside the cave.

Reaching Patal Bhubaneswar

To visit Cave temple of Patal Bhubaneswar you have to take a left turn at Guptari on the main road connecting Raiagar to Gangolihat. If you are travelling from Chaukori ( 0 Km ) then take right turn at Udaiyari Bend ( 2 KM ) ( left goes to Munsiyari ) and via BeriNag ( 10 KM) , Raiaigar ( 18 KM ), you have to take left turn at Guptari ( 29 KM ) to travel towards Patal Bhubaneswar ( another 8 KM ). Total distance from Chaukori to Patal Bhubaneswar is 37 KM.

From Patal Bhubaneswar Jageshwar is 108 KM
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