Hindu texts
| Part of a series on |
| Hindu scriptures and texts |
|---|
 |
| Related Hindu texts |
There are two historic classifications of Hindu texts: Shruti – that which is heard,[5] and Smriti – that which is remembered.[6] The Śruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (rishi). These comprise the central canon of Hinduism.[5][7] It includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads.[8] Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[9][10]
The Smriti texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author,[8] as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than Sruti in Hinduism.[6] The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāngas, the Hindu epics, the Sutras and Shastras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[11][12]
Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages.[2] Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennia before they were written down into manuscripts.[13][14] This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.[13][14]
Sanskrit manuscripts colophon
जलाद्रक्षेत्तैलाद्रक्षेद्रक्षेच्छिथिलबन्धनात् |
मूर्खहस्ते न मां दद्यादिति वदति पुस्तकम् ||
'Save me from water,
protect me from oil,
and from loose binding,
And do not give me into the hands of fools!'
says the manuscript.
मूर्खहस्ते न मां दद्यादिति वदति पुस्तकम् ||
'Save me from water,
protect me from oil,
and from loose binding,
And do not give me into the hands of fools!'
says the manuscript.
at the end of Sanskrit manuscripts[15]
Contents
The Vedas
_Manuscript_LACMA_M.71.1.33.jpg)
Manuscripts of 18th-century Hindu texts in Sanskrit and in a regional language Odiya (below)
Vedas are also called śruti ("what is heard") literature,[24] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the Deity.[25] In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.[26]
There are four Vedas
Sub-Classification of Veda
Each Veda has been Sub-Classified into four major text types:-- The Samhitas (mantras and benedictions),
- The Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices),
- The Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and
- The Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[27][29][30]
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.[31][note 1]The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[32] The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads,[33][34] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[34] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[10][35] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[9][10]
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.[36][37] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas[38] and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),[39] down to the Maurya period.[40] Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.[41][42]
The Puranas
The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.[43] Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[44][45] several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva and Goddess Devi.[46][47] The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism.The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[48] and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[43][45][46] The content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent.[44] The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.[44]
There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas),[49] with over 400,000 verses.[43] The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,[49] but are considered a Smriti.[50] These Hindu texts have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.[51] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.[52][53]
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas. They existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas. She dates Markandeya Purana to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550 CE), Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c. 350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c. 450 CE, Brahmanda Purana to c. 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c. 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. 600–1000 CE.
Maha Puranas, said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way:-
| Sattva ("Truth") | Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana |
| Rajas ("Passion") | Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana |
| Tamas ("Ignorance") | Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana |
A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu text Bhagavad Gita
Post-Vedic texts
The texts that appeared afterwards were called smriti. Smriti literature includes various Shastras and Itihasas (epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata), Harivamsa Puranas, Agamas and Darshanas. The Bhagavad Gita is a part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. This scripture presents a synthesis of the concept of Dharma, theistic bhakti, the yogic ideals of moksha through jnana, bhakti, karma, Vedanta and Samkhya philosophy.[54]The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to later half of the 1st millennium BCE. The Dharma-shastras (law books), derivatives of the Dharma-sutras. Other examples were bhautikashastra "physics", rasayanashastra "chemistry", jīvashastra "biology", vastushastra "architectural science", shilpashastra "science of sculpture", arthashastra "economics" and nītishastra "political science".[55] It also includes Tantras and Āgama (Hinduism) literature.[56]
This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy.[57][58]
The Tevaram Saivite hymns
The Tevaram is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400–1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India.The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira (4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD [1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.[citation needed]
In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.[citation needed]
Other Hindu texts
Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows,| Field | Reviewer | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Agriculture and food | Gyula Wojtilla | [59] |
| Architecture | P Acharya, B Dagens |
[60][61] |
| Devotionalism | Karen Pechelis | [62] |
| Drama, dance and performance arts | AB Keith, Rachel Baumer and James Brandon, Mohan Khokar |
[63][64][65] |
| Education, school system | Hartmut Scharfe | [66] |
| Epics | John Brockington | [67] |
| Gnomic and didactic literature | Ludwik Sternbach | [68] |
| Grammar | Hartmut Scharfe | [69] |
| Law and jurisprudence | J Duncan M Derrett | [70] |
| Lexicography | Claus Vogel | [71] |
| Mathematics and exact sciences | Kim Plofker David Pingree |
[72][73] |
| Medicine | MS Valiathan, Kenneth Zysk |
[74][75] |
| Music | Emmie te Nijenhuis, Lewis Rowell |
[76][77] |
| Mythology | Ludo Rocher | [78] |
| Philosophy | Karl Potter | [79] |
| Poetics | Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard | [80] |
| Gender and Sex | Johann Jakob Meyer | [81] |
| State craft, politics | Patrick Olivelle | [82] |
| Tantrism, Agamas | Teun Goudriaan | [83] |
| Temples, Sculpture | Stella Kramrisch | [84] |
| Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) | Jan Gonda | [85] |
Origin of arts and sciences in India
The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history and origin of arts and sciences forms in India such as music, dance, sculptures, architecture, astronomy, science, mathematics, medicine and wellness. Valmiki's Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by Gandharvas, dance by Apsaras such as Urvashi, Rambha, Menaka, Tilottama Panchāpsaras, and by Ravana's wives who excelling in nrityageeta or "singing and dancing" and nritavaditra or "playing musical instruments").[86] The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in Natasutras, which are mentioned in the text of Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on Sanskrit grammar, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.[87][88] This performance arts related Sutra text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[87][89] Richmond et al estimate the Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.posted by : vipul koul
No comments:
Post a Comment