| Aṅgulimāla | |
|---|---|
.jpg)
Angulimala chases Gautama Buddha
|
|
| Religion | Buddhism |
| Education | Taxila |
| Other names | Ahiṃsaka, Gagga Mantānīputta |
| Personal | |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Born | Sāvatthī, Magadha or Aṅga |
| Religious career | |
| Teacher | Buddha |
| Translations of Aṅgulimāla |
|
|---|---|
| English | lit. 'finger necklace' ('he who wears fingers as a necklace') |
| Pali | Aṅgulimāla |
| Sanskrit | Aṅgulimāliya, Aṅgulimālya |
| Burmese | အင်္ဂုလိမာလ |
| Chinese | 央掘魔羅 (Pinyin: Yangjuemoluo) |
| Khmer | អង្គុលីមាល៍ (Ankulimea) |
| Sinhalese | අංගුලිමාල |
| Thai | องคุลิมาล (RTGS: Onkhuliman) |
| Glossary of Buddhism | |
Aṅgulimāla's story can be found in numerous sources in Pāli, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese. Aṅgulimāla is born Ahiṃsaka. He grows up as an intelligent young man in Sāvatthī, and during his studies becomes the favorite student of his teacher. However, out of jealousy, fellow students set him up against his teacher. In an attempt to get rid of Aṅgūlimāla, the teacher sends him on a deadly mission to find a thousand human fingers to complete his studies. Trying to accomplish this mission, Aṅgulimāla becomes a cruel brigand, killing many and causing entire villages to emigrate. Eventually, this causes the king to send an army to catch the killer. Meanwhile, Aṅgulimāla's mother attempts to interfere, almost causing her to be killed by her son as well. The Buddha manages to prevent this, however, and uses psychic power and teachings to bring Aṅgulimāla to the right path. Aṅgulimāla becomes a follower of the Buddha, and to the surprise of the king and others, becomes a monk under his guidance. Villagers are still angry with Aṅgulimāla, but this is improved somewhat when Aṅgulimāla helps a mother with childbirth through an act of truth.
Scholars have theorized that Aṅgulimāla may have been part of a violent cult before his conversion. Indologist Richard Gombrich has suggested that he was a follower of an early form of Tantra, but this claim has been debunked. Buddhists consider Aṅgulimāla a symbol of spiritual transformation, and his story a lesson that everyone can change their life for the better, even the least likely people. This inspired the official Buddhist prison chaplaincy in the UK to name their organization after him. Moreover, Aṅgulimāla's story is referred to in scholarly discussions of justice and rehabilitation, and is seen by theologian John Thompson as a good example of coping with moral injury and an ethics of care. Aṅgulimāla has been the subject of several movies and literature, with a Thai movie of the same name choosing to depict him following the earliest sources, and the book The Buddha and the Terrorist from Satish Kumar adapting the story as a non-violent response to the Global War on Terror.
Textual sources and epigraphical findings
Buddhaghoṣa (5th century CE; depicted at the right)
Apart from the Pāli texts, the life of Aṅgulimāla is also described in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese texts. For example, the Avadāna Sataka deals with Aṅgulimāla, as well as the Sanskrit text Saṃyuktāgama from the early Mūlasārvastivāda school, and the Chinese versions of this text of the early Sarvāstivāda and Kāśyapīya schools. There is also a later collection of tales called Discourse on the Wise and the Fool, which exists in Tibetan and Chinese, and the travel accounts of Chinese pilgrims, that mention Aṅgulimāla briefly. In addition to descriptions of the life of Aṅgulimāla, there is also a Mahāyāna discourse called the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra, in which Gautama Buddha addresses Aṅgulimāla. This is one of the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras, a group of discourses that deal with the Buddha Nature.
The earliest text that refers to Aṅgulimāla dates from the fifth century CE, but a relief has been found depicting Aṅgulimāla that pre-dates this text with approximately two centuries. The earliest accounts of Aṅgulimāla's life emphasize the fearless violence of Aṅgulimāla and, by contrast, the peacefulness of the Buddha. Later accounts attempt to include more detail and clarify anything that might not conform with Buddhist doctrine. They also include more miracles, however, and together with the many narrative detail this tends to overshadow the main points of the story .In the texts a previous life is described before Aṅgulimāla met the Buddha Gautama. In this life he was born as a man-eating king turned 'ghoul' (Pali: yakkha; Sanskrit: yakṣa), in some texts called Saudāsa.Saudāsa develops an interest in consuming human flesh when he is served the flesh of a dead baby. When he asks for more, his subjects start to fear for their children's safety and he is driven from his own kingdom. Growing into a monster, Saudāsa meets a deity that promises Saudāsa can retrieve his status as king if he sacrifices hundred other kings. Having killed 99 kings, a king called Sutasoma changes Saudāsa's mind and makes him a religious man, and he gives up all violence. King Sutasoma is identified with a previous life of the Buddha, and Saudāsa with a previous life of Aṅgulimāla .
In the texts a previous life is described before Aṅgulimāla met the Buddha Gautama. In this life he was born as a man-eating king turned 'ghoul' (Pali: yakkha; Sanskrit: yakṣa), in some texts called Saudāsa. Saudāsa develops an interest in consuming human flesh when he is served the flesh of a dead baby. When he asks for more, his subjects start to fear for their children's safety and he is driven from his own kingdom. Growing into a monster, Saudāsa meets a deity that promises Saudāsa can retrieve his status as king if he sacrifices hundred other kings. Having killed 99 kings, a king called Sutasoma changes Saudāsa's mind and makes him a religious man, and he gives up all violence. King Sutasoma is identified with a previous life of the Buddha, and Saudāsa with a previous life of Aṅgulimāla.
Aṅgulimāla is born in Sāvatthī,in the brahman (priest) caste of the Gagga clan, his father Bhaggava being the chaplain of the king of Kosala, and his mother called Mantānī.
According to commentarial texts, omens seen at the time of the child's birth (the flashing of weapons and the appearance of the "constellation of thieves" in the sky)indicate that the child is destined to become a brigand. As the father is interpreting the omens for the king, the king asks whether the child will be a lone brigand or a band leader. When Bhaggava replies that he will be a lone brigand, the king decides to let it live.
Buddhaghosa relates that the father names the child Ahiṃsaka, meaning 'the harmless one'. This is derived from the word ahiṃsa (non-violence), because no-one is hurt at his birth, despite the bad omens.The commentary by Dhammapāla states that he is initially named Hiṃsaka ('the harmful one') by the worried king, but that the name is later changed.
Having grown up, Ahiṃsaka is handsome, intelligent and well-behaved. He is sent to Taxila to study under a well-known teacher. There he excels in his studies and becomes the teacher's favorite student, enjoying special privileges in his teacher's house. However, the other students grow jealous of Ahiṃsaka's speedy progress and seek to turn his master against him. To that end, they make it seem as though Ahiṃsaka has seduced the master's wife. Unwilling or unable to attack Ahiṃsaka directly, the teacher says that Ahiṃsaka's training as a true brahman is almost complete, but that he must provide the traditional final gift offered to a teacher and then he will grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demands a thousand fingers, each taken from a different victim, thinking that Aṅgulimāla will be killed in the course of seeking this grisly prize. According to Buddhaghosa, Ahiṃsaka objects to this, saying he comes from a peaceful family, but he is eventually persuaded by the teacher. But according to other versions, he does not protest against the teacher's command.[21]
In another version of the story, the teacher's wife tries to seduce Ahiṃsaka. When he refuses her advances, she is spiteful and tells the teacher Ahiṃsaka has tried to seduce her. The story continues in the same way.
Life as a brigand
Following his teacher's bidding, Aṅgulimāla becomes a highwayman, living on a cliff in a forest called Jālinī where he can see people passing through, and kills or hurts those travelers. He becomes infamous for his skill in seizing his victims. When the people start to avoid roads, he enters villages and drags people from their homes to kill them. Entire villages become abandoned. He never takes clothes or jewels from his victims, only fingers. To keep count of the number of victims that he has taken, he strings them on a thread and hangs them on a tree. However, because birds begin to eat the flesh from the fingers, he starts to wear them as a sacrificial thread. Thus he comes to be known as Aṅgulimāla, meaning 'necklace of fingers'. In some reliefs, he is depicted as wearing a headdress of fingers rather than a necklace.
Remains of Taxila, current-day Pakistan.
Buddhaghosa relates that the father names the child Ahiṃsaka, meaning 'the harmless one'. This is derived from the word ahiṃsa (non-violence), because no-one is hurt at his birth, despite the bad omens. The commentary by Dhammapāla states that he is initially named Hiṃsaka ('the harmful one') by the worried king, but that the name is later changed.
Having grown up, Ahiṃsaka is handsome, intelligent and well-behaved. He is sent to Taxila to study under a well-known teacher. There he excels in his studies and becomes the teacher's favorite student, enjoying special privileges in his teacher's house. However, the other students grow jealous of Ahiṃsaka's speedy progress and seek to turn his master against him. To that end, they make it seem as though Ahiṃsaka has seduced the master's wife. Unwilling or unable to attack Ahiṃsaka directly,the teacher says that Ahiṃsaka's training as a true brahman is almost complete, but that he must provide the traditional final gift offered to a teacher and then he will grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demands a thousand fingers, each taken from a different victim, thinking that Aṅgulimāla will be killed in the course of seeking this grisly prize. According to Buddhaghosa, Ahiṃsaka objects to this, saying he comes from a peaceful family, but he is eventually persuaded by the teacher. But according to other versions, he does not protest against the teacher's command.
In another version of the story, the teacher's wife tries to seduce Ahiṃsaka. When he refuses her advances, she is spiteful and tells the teacher Ahiṃsaka has tried to seduce her. The story continues in the same way.
Life as a brigand
Following his teacher's bidding, Aṅgulimāla becomes a highwayman, living on a cliff in a forest called Jālinī where he can see people passing through, and kills or hurts those travelers. He becomes infamous for his skill in seizing his victims. When the people start to avoid roads, he enters villages and drags people from their homes to kill them. Entire villages become abandoned. He never takes clothes or jewels from his victims, only fingers. To keep count of the number of victims that he has taken, he strings them on a thread and hangs them on a tree. However, because birds begin to eat the flesh from the fingers, he starts to wear them as a sacrificial thread. Thus he comes to be known as Aṅgulimāla, meaning 'necklace of fingers'. In some reliefs, he is depicted as wearing a headdress of fingers rather than a necklace.Meeting the Buddha
.jpg)
Painting at Chedi Traiphop Traimongkhon Temple, Hatyai, Thailand
The Buddha sets off to intercept Aṅgulimāla,despite being warned by local villagers not to go.On the road through the forest of Kosala, Aṅgulimāla first sees his mother.According to some versions of the story, he then has a moment of reconciliation with her, she providing food for Aṅgulimāla. After some deliberation, however, he decides to make her his thousandth victim. But then when Buddha also arrives, he chooses to kill him instead. He draws his sword, and starts running towards the Buddha. But although Aṅgulimāla is running as fast as he can, he cannot catch up with the Buddha who is walking calmly. The Buddha is using some psychic power that affects Aṅgulimāla:one text states the Buddha through these powers contracts and expands the earth on which they stand, thus keeping a distance of Aṅgulimāla. This bewilders Aṅgulimāla so much that he calls to the Buddha to stop. The Buddha then says that he himself has already stopped, and that it is Aṅgulimāla who should stop:
I, Angulimala, am standing still (Pali: ṭhita), having for all beings laid aside the rod (Pali: daṇḍa); but you are unrestrained (Pali: asaññato) regarding creatures; therefore, I am standing still, you are not standing still.Aṅgulimāla asks for further explanation, after which the Buddha says that a good monk should control his desires. Aṅgulimāla is impressed by the Buddha's courage, and struck with guilt about what he has done. After listening to the Buddha, Aṅgulimāla reverently declares himself converted, vows to cease his life as a brigand and joins the Buddhist monastic order. He is admitted in the Jetavana monastery.
Life as a monk and death
Life as a monk and death
.jpg)
Aṅgulimāla sitting down respectfully in front of the Buddha. Painting in Wat Pangla in Songhkla, Southern Thailand
In the end, the king chooses not to persecute Aṅgulimāla. This passage would agree with Buddhologist André Bareau observation that there was an unwritten agreement of mutual non-interference between the Buddha and kings and rulers of the time.
Later, Aṅgulimāla comes across a young woman undergoing difficult labor during a childbirth.Aṇgulimāla is profoundly moved by this, and feels a compassion which he did not know when he was still a brigand. He goes to the Buddha and asks him what he can do to ease her pain. The Buddha tells Aṅgulimāla to go to the woman and say:
Sister, since I was born, I do not recall that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life. By this truth, may you be well and may your infant be well.Aṅgulimāla points out that it would be untrue for him to say this, to which the Buddha responds with this revised stanza:
Sister, since I was born with noble birth, I do not recall that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life. By this truth, may you be well and may your infant be well.The Buddha is here drawing Angulimala's attention to his choice of having become a monk,describing this as a second birth that contrasts with his previous life as a brigand. Jāti means birth, but the word is also glossed in the Pāli commentaries as clan or lineage (Pali: gotta). Thus, the word jāti here also refers to the lineage of the Buddhas, i.e. the monastic community.
After Aṅgulimāla makes this "act of truth", the woman safely gives birth to her child. This verse later became one of the protective verses, commonly called the Aṅgulimāla paritta. It continues to be recited during blessings for pregnant women in Theravāda countries, and is often memorized as part of monastic training. Thus, Aṅgulimāla is widely seen by devotees as the "patron saint" of childbirth. Changing from a murderer to a person seen to ensure safe childbirth has been a huge transformation.
This event helps Aṅgulimāla to find peace. After performing the act of truth, he is seen to "bring life rather than death to the townspeople" and people start to approach him and provide him with almsfood.
However, a resentful few cannot forget that he was responsible for the deaths of their loved ones. With sticks and stones they attack him as he walks for alms. With a bleeding head, torn outer robe and a broken alms bowl, Aṅgulimāla manages to return to the monastery. The Buddha encourages Aṅgulimāla to bear his torment with equanimity; he indicates that Aṅgulimāla is experiencing the fruits of the karma that would otherwise have condemned him to hell. Having become an enlightened disciple, Aṅgulimāla remains firm and invulnerable in mind.According to Buddhist teachings, enlightened disciples cannot create any new karma, but they may still be subject to the effects of old karma that they once did. The effects of his karma are inevitable, and even the Buddha cannot stop them from occurring.
Buddhaghosa states that Aṅgulimāla dies shortly after becoming a monk. After having admitted Aṅgulimāla in the monastic order, the Buddha issues a rule that from now on, no criminals should be accepted as monks in the order.
extual sources and epigraphical findings
Buddhaghoṣa (5th century CE; depicted at the right)
Apart from the Pāli texts, the life of Aṅgulimāla is also described in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese texts.[7][5] For example, the Avadāna Sataka deals with Aṅgulimāla,[12] as well as the Sanskrit text Saṃyuktāgama from the early Mūlasārvastivāda school, and the Chinese versions of this text of the early Sarvāstivāda and Kāśyapīya schools.[13][5][14] There is also a later collection of tales called Discourse on the Wise and the Fool, which exists in Tibetan and Chinese,[15] and the travel accounts of Chinese pilgrims, that mention Aṅgulimāla briefly.[16] In addition to descriptions of the life of Aṅgulimāla, there is also a Mahāyāna discourse called the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra, in which Gautama Buddha addresses Aṅgulimāla. This is one of the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras, a group of discourses that deal with the Buddha Nature.[1][17]
The earliest text that refers to Aṅgulimāla dates from the fifth century CE, but a relief has been found depicting Aṅgulimāla that pre-dates this text with approximately two centuries.[18] The earliest accounts of Aṅgulimāla's life emphasize the fearless violence of Aṅgulimāla and, by contrast, the peacefulness of the Buddha. Later accounts attempt to include more detail and clarify anything that might not conform with Buddhist doctrine.[19] They also include more miracles, however, and together with the many narrative detail this tends to overshadow the main points of the story.[20]
History
Previous life
In the texts a previous life is described before Aṅgulimāla met the Buddha Gautama. In this life he was born as a man-eating king turned 'ghoul' (Pali: yakkha; Sanskrit: yakṣa),[21][22] in some texts called Saudāsa.[23] Saudāsa develops an interest in consuming human flesh when he is served the flesh of a dead baby. When he asks for more, his subjects start to fear for their children's safety and he is driven from his own kingdom.[24][note 1] Growing into a monster, Saudāsa meets a deity that promises Saudāsa can retrieve his status as king if he sacrifices hundred other kings.[22] Having killed 99 kings, a king called Sutasoma changes Saudāsa's mind and makes him a religious man, and he gives up all violence. King Sutasoma is identified with a previous life of the Buddha,[22][23] and Saudāsa with a previous life of Aṅgulimāla.[25]Youth
Remains of Taxila, current-day Pakistan.
Buddhaghosa relates that the father names the child Ahiṃsaka, meaning 'the harmless one'.[12] This is derived from the word ahiṃsa (non-violence), because no-one is hurt at his birth, despite the bad omens.[1] The commentary by Dhammapāla states that he is initially named Hiṃsaka ('the harmful one') by the worried king, but that the name is later changed.[12]
Having grown up, Ahiṃsaka is handsome, intelligent and well-behaved.[21][13] He is sent to Taxila to study under a well-known teacher. There he excels in his studies and becomes the teacher's favorite student, enjoying special privileges in his teacher's house. However, the other students grow jealous of Ahiṃsaka's speedy progress and seek to turn his master against him.[12] To that end, they make it seem as though Ahiṃsaka has seduced the master's wife.[21] Unwilling or unable to attack Ahiṃsaka directly,[note 3] the teacher says that Ahiṃsaka's training as a true brahman is almost complete, but that he must provide the traditional final gift offered to a teacher and then he will grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demands a thousand fingers, each taken from a different victim, thinking that Aṅgulimāla will be killed in the course of seeking this grisly prize.[12][13][note 4] According to Buddhaghosa, Ahiṃsaka objects to this, saying he comes from a peaceful family, but he is eventually persuaded by the teacher.[30] But according to other versions, he does not protest against the teacher's command.[21]
In another version of the story, the teacher's wife tries to seduce Ahiṃsaka. When he refuses her advances, she is spiteful and tells the teacher Ahiṃsaka has tried to seduce her. The story continues in the same way.[1][13]
Life as a brigand
Following his teacher's bidding, Aṅgulimāla becomes a highwayman, living on a cliff in a forest called Jālinī where he can see people passing through, and kills or hurts those travelers.[32][12][21] He becomes infamous for his skill in seizing his victims.[33] When the people start to avoid roads, he enters villages and drags people from their homes to kill them. Entire villages become abandoned.[12][30] He never takes clothes or jewels from his victims, only fingers.[30] To keep count of the number of victims that he has taken, he strings them on a thread and hangs them on a tree. However, because birds begin to eat the flesh from the fingers, he starts to wear them as a sacrificial thread. Thus he comes to be known as Aṅgulimāla, meaning 'necklace of fingers'.[1][30] In some reliefs, he is depicted as wearing a headdress of fingers rather than a necklace.[34]Meeting the Buddha
Painting at Chedi Traiphop Traimongkhon Temple, Hatyai, Thailand
The Buddha sets off to intercept Aṅgulimāla,[12] despite being warned by local villagers not to go.[10] On the road through the forest of Kosala, Aṅgulimāla first sees his mother.[1] According to some versions of the story, he then has a moment of reconciliation with her, she providing food for Aṅgulimāla.[42] After some deliberation, however, he decides to make her his thousandth victim. But then when Buddha also arrives, he chooses to kill him instead. He draws his sword, and starts running towards the Buddha. But although Aṅgulimāla is running as fast as he can, he cannot catch up with the Buddha who is walking calmly.[1] The Buddha is using some psychic power that affects Aṅgulimāla:[33][5] one text states the Buddha through these powers contracts and expands the earth on which they stand, thus keeping a distance of Aṅgulimāla.[43] This bewilders Aṅgulimāla so much that he calls to the Buddha to stop. The Buddha then says that he himself has already stopped, and that it is Aṅgulimāla who should stop:[1][44]
I, Angulimala, am standing still (Pali: ṭhita), having for all beings laid aside the rod (Pali: daṇḍa); but you are unrestrained (Pali: asaññato) regarding creatures; therefore, I am standing still, you are not standing still.[33]Aṅgulimāla asks for further explanation, after which the Buddha says that a good monk should control his desires.[45] Aṅgulimāla is impressed by the Buddha's courage,[46] and struck with guilt about what he has done.[47] After listening to the Buddha, Aṅgulimāla reverently declares himself converted, vows to cease his life as a brigand and joins the Buddhist monastic order.[48][49] He is admitted in the Jetavana monastery.[38]
Life as a monk and death
Aṅgulimāla sitting down respectfully in front of the Buddha. Painting in Wat Pangla in Songhkla, Southern Thailand
In the end, the king chooses not to persecute Aṅgulimāla. This passage would agree with Buddhologist André Bareau observation that there was an unwritten agreement of mutual non-interference between the Buddha and kings and rulers of the time.[50]
Later, Aṅgulimāla comes across a young woman undergoing difficult labor during a childbirth.[note 7] Aṇgulimāla is profoundly moved by this, and feels a compassion which he did not know when he was still a brigand.[51] He goes to the Buddha and asks him what he can do to ease her pain. The Buddha tells Aṅgulimāla to go to the woman and say:
Sister, since I was born, I do not recall that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life. By this truth, may you be well and may your infant be well.Aṅgulimāla points out that it would be untrue for him to say this, to which the Buddha responds with this revised stanza:
Sister, since I was born with noble birth, I do not recall that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life. By this truth, may you be well and may your infant be well.[1] [emphasis added]The Buddha is here drawing Angulimala's attention to his choice of having become a monk,[1] describing this as a second birth that contrasts with his previous life as a brigand.[52][10] Jāti means birth, but the word is also glossed in the Pāli commentaries as clan or lineage (Pali: gotta). Thus, the word jāti here also refers to the lineage of the Buddhas, i.e. the monastic community.[53]
After Aṅgulimāla makes this "act of truth", the woman safely gives birth to her child. This verse later became one of the protective verses, commonly called the Aṅgulimāla paritta.[54][55] It continues to be recited during blessings for pregnant women in Theravāda countries,[56][57] and is often memorized as part of monastic training.[42] Thus, Aṅgulimāla is widely seen by devotees as the "patron saint" of childbirth. Changing from a murderer to a person seen to ensure safe childbirth has been a huge transformation.[6]
This event helps Aṅgulimāla to find peace.[51] After performing the act of truth, he is seen to "bring life rather than death to the townspeople"[51] and people start to approach him and provide him with almsfood.[58]
However, a resentful few cannot forget that he was responsible for the deaths of their loved ones. With sticks and stones they attack him as he walks for alms. With a bleeding head, torn outer robe and a broken alms bowl, Aṅgulimāla manages to return to the monastery. The Buddha encourages Aṅgulimāla to bear his torment with equanimity; he indicates that Aṅgulimāla is experiencing the fruits of the karma that would otherwise have condemned him to hell.[12][1][59] Having become an enlightened disciple, Aṅgulimāla remains firm and invulnerable in mind.[1] According to Buddhist teachings, enlightened disciples cannot create any new karma, but they may still be subject to the effects of old karma that they once did.[60] The effects of his karma are inevitable, and even the Buddha cannot stop them from occurring.[61]
Buddhaghosa states that Aṅgulimāla dies shortly after becoming a monk. After having admitted Aṅgulimāla in the monastic order, the Buddha issues a rule that from now on, no criminals should be accepted as monks in the order.[12][62]
Analysis
.jpg)
Historical
The custom of the giving of goodbye gifts to one's teacher was customary in ancient India. We find an example in the "Book of Pauṣya"[note 8] of the Vedic epic Mahābharatha. Here the teacher sends his disciple Uttanka away after Uttanka has proven himself worthy of being trustworthy and in the possession of all the Vedic and Dharmashastric teachings. Uttanka says to his teacher:"What can I do for you that pleases you (Sanskrit: kiṃ te priyaṃ karavāni), because thus it is said: Whoever answers without [being in agreement with] the Dharma, and whoever asks without [being in agreement with] the Dharma, either occurs: one dies or one attracts animosity."Indologist Friedrich Wilhelm maintains that similar phrases already occur in the Book of Manu (II,111) and in the Institutes of Vishnu. By taking leave of their teacher and promising to do whatever their teacher asks of them, brings, according to the Vedic teachings, enlightenment or a similar attainment. It is therefore not unusual that Aṅgulimāla is described to do his teacher's horrible bidding—although being a good and kind person at heart—in the knowledge that in the end he will reap the highest attainment.[63]
The idea that Aṅgulimāla was part of a violent cult was already suggested by the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (depicted here).
The idea that Aṅgulimāla was part of a violent cult was already suggested by the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (602–64 CE). In his travel accounts, Xuan Zang states that Aṅgulimāla's was taught by his teacher that he would be born in the Brahma heaven if he killed a Buddha. A Chinese early text gives a similar description, stating that Aṅgulimāla's teacher followed the gruesome instructions of his guru, to attain immortality.[70] Xuan Zang's suggestion was further developed by European translators of Xuan Zang's travel accounts in the early twentieth century, but partly based on translation errors.[71][72] Regardless, Gombrich is the first recent scholar to postulate this idea. However, Gombrich's claim that tantric practices existed before the finalization of the canon of Buddhist discourses (two to three centuries BCE) goes against mainstream scholarship. Scholarly consensus places the arising of the first tantric cults about a thousand years later, and no corroborating evidence has been found, whether textual or otherwise, of earlier sanguinary tantric practices.[67][73] Though Gombrich argues that there other, similar antinomian practices (going against moral norms) which are only mentioned once in Buddhist scriptures and for which no evidence can be found outside of the scriptures,[74] Buddhist Studies scholars Mudagamuwa and Von Rospatt dismiss these as incorrect examples. They also take issue with Gombrich's metrical arguments, thus disagreeing with Gombrich's hypotheses with regard to Aṅgulimāla. They do consider it possible, however, that Angulimāla's violent practices were part of some kind of cult.[75] Buddhist Studies scholar L. S. Cousins has also expressed doubts about Gombrich's theory.[76]
In the Chinese translation of the Damamūkhāvadāna by Hui-chiao,[77] as well as in archaeological findings,[23] Aṅgulimāla is identified with the mythological Hindu king Kalmashapada or Saudāsa, known since Vedic times. Saudāsa's life often is described as Aṅgulimāla's previous life, and both deal with the problem of being a good brahman.[23]
Studying art depictions in the Gandhāra region, Archeologist Maurizio Taddei theorizes that the story of Aṅgulimāla may point at a Indian mythology with regard to a yakṣa living in the wild. In many depictions Aṅgulimāla is wearing a headdress, which Taddei describes as an example of dionysian-like iconography. Art historian Pia Brancaccio argues, however, that the headdress is an Indian symbol used for figures associated with the wild or hunting.[34] She concurs with Taddei that depictions of Aṅgulimāla, especially in Gandhāra, are in many ways reminiscent of dionysian themes in Greek art an mythology, and influence is highly likely.[78] However, Brancaccio argues that the headdress was essentially an Indian symbol, used by artists to indicate Aṅgulimāla belonged to a forest tribe, feared by the early Buddhists who were mostly urban.[79]
Doctrinal
A bandit I used to be,
renowned as Aṅgulimāla.
Swept along by a great flood,
I went to the Buddha as refuge...
This has come well & not gone away,
it was not badly thought through for me.
The three knowledges
have been attained;
the Buddha’s bidding,
done.
renowned as Aṅgulimāla.
Swept along by a great flood,
I went to the Buddha as refuge...
This has come well & not gone away,
it was not badly thought through for me.
The three knowledges
have been attained;
the Buddha’s bidding,
done.
Buddhists have raised Aṅgulimāla's story as an example of the compassion (Pali: karuṇa) and psychic power (Pali: iddhi) of the Buddha.[12] Aṅgulimāla's conversion is cited as a testimony to the Buddha's capabilities as a teacher,[14] and as an example of the healing qualities of the teaching of the Buddha (Dharma).[82]
Through his reply, the Buddha connects the notion of 'refraining from harming' (Pali: avihiṃsa) with stillness, which is the cause and effect of not harming. Furthermore, the story illustrates that there is spiritual power in such stillness, as the Buddha is depicted as outrunning the violent Aṅgulimāla. Though this is explained as being the result of the Buddha's psychic powers, the deeper meaning is that "... 'the spiritually still person' can move faster than the 'conventionally active' person". In other words, spiritual achievement is only possible through non-violence.[33] Furthermore, this stillness refers to the Buddhist notion of liberation from karma: as long as one cannot escape from the endless law of karmic retribution, one can at least lessen one's karma by practicing non-violence. This is described as form of stillness, as opposed to the continuous movement of karmic retribution.[83]
In contrast to Theravādin interpretations, in East-Asian Buddhism, Aṅgulimāla's example has often been raised to illustrate the perspective of ultimate reality, in which differences between good and evil no longer hold.[38]
In behavioral sciences
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King Pasenadi planting a Bodhi Tree in honor of the Buddha.
Ethics scholar David Loy has written extensively about Aṅgulimāla's story and the implications it has for the justice system. He believes that in Buddhist ethics, the only reason offenders should be punished is to reform their character. If an offender, like Aṅgulimāla, has already reformed himself, there is no reason to punish him, even as a deterrent. Furthermore, Loy argues that the story of Aṅgulimāla does not include any form of restorative or transformative justice, and therefore considers the story "flawed" as an example of justice.[89] Former politician and community health scholar Mathura Shrestha, on the other hand, describes Aṅgulimāla's story as "[p]robably the first concept of transformative justice", citing Aṅgulimāla's repentance and renunciation of his former life as a brigand, and the pardon he eventually received from relatives of victims.[90] Writing about capital punishment, scholar Damien Horigan notes that rehabilitation is the main theme of Aṅgulimāla's story, and that witnessing such rehabilitation is the reason why King Pasenadi does not persecute Aṅgulimāla.[91]
In Sri Lankan pre-birth rituals, when the Aṅgulimāla Sutta is chanted for a pregnant woman, it is custom to surround her with objects symbolizing fertility and reproduction, such as parts of the coconut tree and earthen pots.[92] It has been pointed out that in Southeast Asian mythology, there are links between bloodthirsty figures and fertility motifs.[51][93] The shedding of blood can be found in both violence and childbirth, which explains why Aṅgulimāla is both depicted as a killer and a healer with regard to childbirth.[93]
With regard to the passage when the Buddha meets Aṅgulimāla, Feminist scholar Liz Wilson concludes that the story is an example of cooperation and interdependence between the sexes: both the Buddha and Aṅgulimāla's mother help to stop him.[94] Similarly, Thompson argues that mothers play an important role in the story, also citing the passage of the mother trying to stop Aṅgulimāla, as well as Aṅgulimāla healing a mother giving childbirth. Furthermore, both the Buddha and Aṅgulimāla take on motherly roles in the story.[95] Although in many ancient Indian stories women are associated with qualities like foolishness and powerlessness, in Aṅgulimāla's story, feminine qualities are accepted and the Buddha acts as a wise adviser to use those qualities in a constructive way.[96] Nevertheless, Thompson does not consider the story feminist in any way, but does argue it contains a feminine kind of ethics of care, rooted in Buddhism.[82]
In modern culture
In popular culture, Aṅgulimāla's legend has received considerable attention. The story has been the main subject of at least three movies.] In 2003, Thai director Suthep Tannirat attempted to release a film named Angulimala. Over 20 conservative Buddhist organizations in Thailand launched a protest, however, complaining that the movie distorted Buddhist teachings and history, and introduced Hindu and theistic influences not found in the Buddhist scriptures. The Thai film censorship board rejected appeals to ban the film, stating it did not distort Buddhist teachings. They did insist that the director cut two scenes of violent material.The conservative groups were offended by the depiction of Aṅgulimāla as a brutal murderer, without including the history which led him to become such a violent brigand. Tannirat defended himself, however, arguing that although he had omitted interpretations from the commentaries, he had followed the early Buddhist discourses precisely.
Citizens, this is the first time I have
come across a terrorist who sees the error of his ways and actually
renounces crime ... As Angulimala changed from being a terrorist to a
monk, I changed from being a giver of harsh punishments to a
compassionate King. Yes, my citizens, I have seen a new light. I have
changed ... It would be easy to declare the Buddha an accomplice and not
only arrest Angulimala but also to arrest the Buddha himself—accusing
him of being a protector of terrorists, of aiding and abetting
terrorism. That would be easy. Neither the Buddha nor Angulimala have
any defenses, whereas my army is well equipped—the strongest and most
powerful. Yet now I see the world differently. I see we need more
Buddhas and more monks rather than more soldiers, more police, more
prisons.
“
”
POSTED BY :VIPUL KOUL
SOURCES : WIKIPEDIA AND LIFE OF BHAGVAN GOTAM BUDA
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